Many people today are required by their jobs and positions in a firm, ‘to say a few words’. The recipient of these words could be a lady going away to have a baby, or another much valued employee who is going into retirement. Whatever the occasion, people, especially in managerial positions, must take the trouble to acquire some skill in Public Speaking.

There are many topics in many areas for the teaching of Public Speaking. Some are quite obvious - like speaking to persuade. Others are not so obvious, like microphone techniques, or conversation. A much-needed skill is examined also; this is the topic of Chairmanship.

There are six basic purposes of a speech. Most speeches will fit one of these guidelines in its pattern.

Many speeches are done to convey information, or to satisfy people’s curiosity. News broadcasts are one example. The reporter, who can be making his or her speech from any corner of the world, conveys information. Some will go right into battlefields. Some have been wounded, captured, or killed. People want to know what is happening, in the neighbourhood, the country, or the world. A speech to inform, describes, explains, defines, or demonstrates something e.g. changes in unemployment benefit, and the growth rates of the economy over the last ten years! This type of speech is not as difficult as it sounds, and a newcomer to Public Speaking should master it.

The traditional speech to entertain is the story or narrative. Adventure stories, love stories, success stories have never lost their appeal for audiences.

Another type of speech is the after-dinner type of speech. Some people are masters of the humorous after-dinner speech. Be very careful with humour in such gathering.

Do try and master the presentation of speeches, which present novel, dramatic or suspenseful topics. A well-constructed serious speech is also a speech to entertain. A speech to entertain need not contain mirth or levity.

Many speakers hope to influence the belief, feelings, motives or conduct of others, by getting them, to change their point of view. Sometimes a speaker will strengthen the opinions of his hearers, e.g. ‘Bring back hanging’. The speaker can make the audience believe, by offering facts, expert judgement, logical agreement, and the correct appraisal of a controversial situation.

This kind of speech stimulates the feelings and emotions of the listeners, and reinforces their appreciation, of moral, aesthetic or social values, or inspires them with great ideas and freedoms. Certain themes e.g. freedom, need to be reaffirmed, and re-appreciated at frequent intervals. We should keep alive the memories of people who have sacrificed their careers, comfort and even their lives. The Eulogy is a well-known example, of a speech to impress.

These speeches are designed and made, to make a speaker’s meaning clear. He or she could be talking about how a car engine works, or how inflation arises. In political circles, a person can try to unravel the patterns in the budget. This is a basic type of speech, and it should be understood perfectly.

A speech to actuate is designed to the listeners, for them to do a definite deed. The act may have political, social, economic or personal consequences. We can be exhorted to contribute to a charity, to buy an article, or to vote for a politician. If the listeners believe or are moved to believe in a particular cause, then they will act as required. The speaker must give convincing reasons, for the action in order, to allow the listener to perform it. ‘Sign this petition now’ or ‘Dig deep into your pockets and support Oxfam’s fund raising drive!’ - these are two examples of the sort of requests that belong to the speech to activate.

Just one purpose should be the focus of a speech. If you try to cram in too many purposes into a speech, it will be untidy and the chances are that you will lose your audience. It has certain rules; most of these rules can be learnt. When you have mastered these rules, adopt a posture of daring-dare to struggle, dare to believe, dare to win!

It is diabolical to suggest that people can learn to make impromptu speeches. By definition an impromptu speech is done without preparation. A person is asked, coerced, or persuaded to talk, and he or she must get up immediately, and address the group. It requires a kind of skill, a panache really, for someone to perform creditably; in what some people believe is the most exacting of all the types of speeches.

The impromptu speech is one that is most often seen. It is also one that is often the most mangled. It is often ineffectively performed. Even with experienced speakers, the result is a rambling effort, disconnected, and not making any point.

The question remains what should be done about impromptu speeches? The short answer is, to do your homework. This means that you should find out all that you could find out, about your audience. If for instance, the meeting is about financial aid to an African country, that country’s needs, history and development, should be adequately researched. Moreover, if you have a road safety meeting, the statistics, the facts and attitudes of your locality, should be thoroughly researched, before the meeting. It is of paramount importance, that the speaker determines the purpose or subject to be considered. In order to contribute positively to the meeting, the speaker can make a speech of telling impact.

Usually a speaker will be asked to talk about a subject he or she knows. It is only fair that a person’s expertise or speciality should be recognised. If, however an individual is asked to speak on a subject he knows nothing about, there are basically two strategies. The first is to get up, and pronounce that you know nothing about it, and sit down. If, however, you are filled with a sprit of daring, you can start your utterance by defining your topic. If you have an inkling about the topic, you can attempt some kind of explanation. Alternatively you can wax philosophical, and ask - “what do we mean by -----“ or “how do we know ------“ So if your topic is “Metals and metallurgy”, you can lead off by asking, “What do we mean by metals and Metallurgy?”

It is also helpful to use the historical approach. In this you recall the past, present and future as regards the topic. You can also state an idea and give reasons for it. Alternatively, you can state an idea and illustrate it, or state a problem, and give the solution.

The impromptu speech is a speech like any other speech. It should have a beginning, a middle and an end. By its very nature, most speakers have a very weak beginning. They can however, make up in the middle of the speech, and if experienced, they can have a good and powerful end.

The Length of an impromptu speech is from three to six minutes. This time span can seem like an eternity, if the speaker flops. The only cure is practice. One precaution is, to take a note pad, and a pencil, into the meeting. Points made by other speakers are recounted. The speaker can agree or disagree with the various points.

A good impromptu speaker is often skilled in analysing, outlining and developing topics, and is expert in most aspects of public speaking. Such a person is used to addressing audiences, and he or she can prepare a powerful speech, at the drop of a hat. Nevertheless, with practice and help, all of us can improve.

Lawyers are supposed to be the best examples of persuasive speaking, the world over. Perhaps daily they have to persuade a client, a judge or a jury, that their views of the given facts are correct.

For other types of speaking there are certain guiding principles.

The first notion is, that the speaker must consider which emotions and impulses to appeal to, in the audience, and what mix, and what proportion of logic, and of emotion, to use. The speaker must also decide in what order to present his or her case. The classical model of course can still be used. It goes approximately like this:

(a) A short emotional Introduction

(b) A rational Exposition

(c) A development and a climax

(d) An eloquently emotional end, or Peroration.

Argument and persuasion must be skilfully interwoven. The vocabulary must also be carefully chosen. A speech to persuade, almost by definition, is compelled to use emotional language; highly coloured words. A man is not merely a criminal, he is, a heinous thug, and his actions are most reprehensible. You are not merely disgusted, and outraged; you are filled with grave disquiet. A good speech preparation tool, is of course, Roget’s Thesaurus.

Sometimes waving the big stick can be counter-productive. It behoves a speaker therefore, to let his or her MATTER to be logical, and the MANNER to be persuasive. GOOD -persuasion is tactful, considerate and an engaging presentation, of the best arguments available.

The speaker must exhibit great care about his or her appearance. Appearances can persuade powerfully. Perhaps the most impressive example of this, was the famous John Kennedy - Richard Nixon TV debates in 1960. Evaluators after the event, claimed that Nixon’s, unshaven, slightly dishevelled, shifty-eyed appearance, lost him the debates, and ultimately the 1960 election for the US Presidency. Such matters as dress, carriage, manner, poise and facial expression, if properly done, can impress an audience favourably. Tact should be assiduously cultivated. In order to persuade a speaker must have tact and tolerance. Tact is of course the golden rule.

Many speeches exist to influence the beliefs, feelings or conduct, of other people, by getting them to change or intensify their points of view or inclinations.

Persuasion can have three different aims:

Persuasion is the art of shaping conduct, by using evidence, reasoning and suggestion, in connection with convictions. In other words, it is a form of education, the enlargement of our skills of communication, and presentation. Sometimes facts are often only imperfectly known hence the need, and the obligation of the speaker, to persuade his audience. He or she considers not only the problem, but also his audience. His object is, to motivate his listeners, to think and act as he does.

Of course the speech to persuade is one that has been mastered by statesmen, writers, politicians and poets like Robert Burns.

It is of paramount importance to people who are upwardly mobile, to learn the art of chairmanship, and to master all its skills and challenges. For managers and supervisors, it is vital that they know how to conduct meetings. In order to facilitate communication, a skilled chairman develops a quality of problem solving, surpassing that, of a less skilled one, and obtains a higher degree of group acceptance. It must be stressed that chairmanship is a skill. Some enthusiasts read deeply into the subject. It is however, a practical exercise, and one occasion as a chairman, would probably teach you more, about chairmanship, than all the books you can read or all the lectures you can attend.

The functions of a chairman are many. He summarises, Encourages, Analyses, supplies informal advice, shares ideas, and prevents hard feelings. Above all, he or she must have proper control of the meeting. The success of the meeting depends greatly on the skill with which the discussion is handled.

A slightly comic situation has arisen as regards a woman who is chairing a meeting. Under the pressure of woman’s Lib and Equal Opportunities, some people arrived at he phrase “Madame Chairman”. This sounds like a contradiction in terms. Some people favour “Madame Chairwoman”, which sounds inelegant to some ears. Other persons have spoken of “Madame Chair”. This is a neuter inanimate object, and is rightly shunned by many people. It is a point of grammar. Does the word Chairman have a feminine state? The only safe thing is to ask the person in the chair, if a woman, what words to speak when she is being addressed.

So we come to the meeting itself. The Chairman usually has an agenda, which in many organisations, is printed and circulated beforehand. An agenda is a list of topics that the meeting will discuss. It must be stressed that the Agenda differs from organisation to organisation. After all, you cannot expect that cricket and football club meetings, will coincide with say, that of a High Street Bank, or a Trade Union. A pattern, which could be adapted to the specific needs of the organisation, is as follows:

It must be emphasised that the chairman is in charge of the meeting at all stages of it.

The chairman’s position can be compared to that of a host at a party. He must make sure, that he creates a welcome atmosphere, which is easy, yet businesslike. He should ensure that the comments, of all the members are accepted. He should ensure that the timid speakers are brought out of their shells. Above all, he should prevent a few persons from dominating the meeting. It is a huge task in some organisations. The chairman must have knowledge. He must know whether an action, idea or speech is allowable. He cannot really afford to have his authority questioned. The conduct of meetings can be extremely complex, especially in business organisations, and it requires a lawyer to disentangle the meaning of some situations sometimes.

The final point, concerns control. Some people are extreme skilled in wrecking meetings. Perhaps one of the worst types of meeting to chair is an Ad Hoc meeting. It lacks form, it lacks planning, moreover, the audience could be very angry. The chairman must control the meeting; disorder is a sin, against one of the unwritten laws of Chairmanship. Even though regrettably it happens, it should never occur. The chairman should be in control of himself at all times.

1. Is the world overpopulated?
1. Nelson Mandela
1. My first dance
1. My early life
1. Living in the Countryside
1. London is the place for me
1. Redheads
1. The Book/Teacher/Friend/Experiences that changed me
1. How to train a dog
1. Sawing wood
1. How to select a hat
1. The right way to drive a car
1. What to do to revive a drowning person
1. The bare necessities of life
1. Why I support the Poll Tax

(a) “Knowest thou not that Allah is able to all things? Knowest thou not that it is Allah unto whom belongeth the sovereignty of the heavens and the earth and ye have not beside Allah any friend or helper? Or would ye question your messenger as Moses was questioned afore time? He who chooseth disbelief instead of faith verily he hath gone astray from a plain road.”

“ Allah! There is no God save him, the alive the eternal. Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. Unto him belogeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever that is in the earth. Who is he that intercedeth with Him save by his leave? His throne includeth the heavens and the earth and He is never weary of preserving them. He is sublime, the tremendous.”

These are just two passages from the HOLY QUR’AN which are suitable for an eulogy. An eulogy is a speech made usually but not always for someone who dies. It is a tribute, a speech of praise on behalf of a person. The customary venues are churches, funeral homes and temples. It is also a speech to impress.

Hence there is one infallible rule if you have to do an eulogy. It is to use the Holy Books in the world. The Bible, The Talmud or the Torah if you are Jewish and Qur’an (Koran) if your faith is Islam. The final selection from the QUR’AN are from SURAH XI – HUD.

“O my people! Serve Allah! Ye have no other God save him. Lo! Ye do but invent: And, O my people! Ask forgiveness of your Lord, then turn to him repentant. He will cause the sky to rain abundance on you and will add strength. Turn not away guilty.”

There are of course several excellent passages from the Bible, which could be used with telling effect in an eulogy. The guiding principle of an eulogy is to arouse appreciation for the person’s admirable traits and qualities. The speaker should stress values, achievements and positive attainments. The speaker should concentrate on the deceased persons’ self sacrifice, hard work and his disdain for doing things for personal gain. The Psalms are a rich source for quotations as in Psalm 1 –

“ Blessed is the man who walks not in the counsel of the wicked nor stands in the way of sinners; nor sits in the way of scoffers; but his delight is in the law of the Lord, and on his law meditates day and night. He is like a tree planted by streams of water that yields its fruit in its season and its leaf does not wither. In all that he does, he prospers.”

I will give thanks to the Lord with my whole heart;

I will tell of all thy wonderful deeds

I will be glad and exalt in thee

I will sing praise to thy name, O Most High.

“God scorns the wicked, but the upright enjoy his flavour.”

Happy is the man who finds wisdom, and the man who gets understanding for the gain from it is better than the gain from silver and its profit better than gold.”

Words of comfort have to be addressed to the sorrowing relatives and friends. Again this quotation from Revelation chapter 21:4

“He will wipe away all the tears from their eyes, and there

shall be No more death

Nor Sorrow, nor crying,

Nor Pain

All of that has Gone

Forever.”

It is possible also to find quotes and appropriate verses from Hymn-Books, from the Christian religion.

Frankly this is a disaster area. There is usually a Master of Ceremonies. He is like a Chairman and must set the tone of the celebrations. At one memorable wedding, the Master of Ceremonies said, “ I would not say that the bride has looks, but looks are deceiving.”

It should be stressed that though a wedding should be a happy and joyous occasion, it should also be a serious and solemn occasion. There is really no place for levity or silliness.

The Best Man is obliged to reply on behalf of the bridesmaids. This can usually be negotiated safely, unless the Best Man decides to crack jokes. It must be stressed that a Humorous speech is one of the most difficult there is, and should be attempted only by experienced speakers.

In some cultures the master of Ceremonies might invite speeches from the guests. It is at the moment that the fun begins. You are forbidden to say to the bride, “Now that you have John, you must forget Tom,” or to recall embarrassing incidents when either, or both of the wedding couple were small. Wedding speeches should be speeches of praise. It is also acceptable to read poetry at a wedding. One of my favourites is “The Prophet by Khalil Gibran on Love”

“When love beckons to you, follow him,

Though his ways are hard and steep.

And when his wings enfold you yield to him

Though the sword hidden among his pinions may wound you”

Or

“Love gives naught but itself and takes naught but from itself,

Love possesses not nor would it be possessed;

For Love is sufficient unto love.”

And on Marriage

“Love one another but make not a bond of love:

Let it rather be a moving sea between the shores of your souls

Fill each other’s cup but drink bot from one cup.

Give one another of your bread but eat not from the same loaf.

Sing and dance together and be joyous, but let each one of you be alone,

Even as the strings of a lute are alone though they quiver

With the same music.”

On many public occasions a special courtesy is either extended or received. These speeches are the speech of introduction, the announcement, the speech of welcome, the speech of farewell and the speech of presentation.

A speech of acceptance is usually required to acknowledge the presentation of a gift award or honour. A reply is often expected.

In a speech of presentation a person of tender years can sometimes be involved. There is a way to present the cheque, clock, or award. When the speech is over, the donor holds the gift in his or her left hand, and shakes the recipient’s hand, with the right hand, and presents the gift. If you have not done it before, it is wise to rehearse it.

As regards the speech itself it should be suited to the gift, the receiver, and the occasion. The speech should be done in such a way that each listener feels he or she is included in the remarks.

The speaker should say why the presentation is being made, identify the receiver, and praise him or her for his or her achievements. The speaker should also express his or her pleasure in making the presentation.

Though there are more speeches of courtesy, these cannot be fitted easily into the format for this series.

1. Superstitions the world over
2. Cliff Richard
3. Mick Jagger and The Rolling Stones
4. Young people on Motor-cycles
5. Is the family “Old Hat’
6. Should we abolish all Arranged Marriages
7. I U A Richards W I Captain
8. Soap Operas on TV
9. Sir Robin Day
10. Fish from Britain’s Seas
11. Mastermind
12. Paris
13. Prince Charles
14. Great cities of Scotland
15. Private Eyes on TV
16. Hospital soaps on TV

One of the principle functions of the chairman is to act as a leader. Chairmanship is leadership. The Chairmanship guides the flow of the discussion, during a meeting. Ideally he recognises all who have questions and comments, and refers them to the proper sources for answers. He keeps, therefore, the total floe of the discussion in mind, and must remember the types of comments each member of the group makes. With this in mind, he can shift a question to the proper, and provide transition from one person to another.

The chairman also clarifies questions. The chairman more or less relays the content of the request. Some questions and comments are long, turgid, tortured, abstract, aggressive and unnecessary. The Chairman must be a good judge as to what is to be allowed. The Chairman steps in. He can ask the speaker to define certain words, or he himself can restate the question. Before he allows the question to go forward, the Chairman should check with the speaker, to see that his rephrasing has not changed the original meaning of the question.

The chairman should keep the group to the topic. Comments are to illuminate the issue, or they are not valid. The Chairman can also decide the degree of deviation from the topic. Some ways of doing this are:

1. Restate the issue after the participant concludes
2. State points made on both sides of the issue
3. Point out how the last comment, opens up other issues, and ask the group, if they want to stay with the topic or explore new avenues.
4. State that the last comment, opens up other issues, and ask the group, if they want to stay with the topic or explore the new avenues.

The Chairman summarises the discussion. This is one of the most valuable tools of the Chairman. It gives order and clarity to the discussion. The number of summaries depends on how the meeting goes. Quick discussions will have quick summaries. They are more frequent, to stimulate as well, pointing out the specific accomplishments of the meeting. This caused, and improves morale.

The Chairman must keep order in the discussions. He must step in when people try to speak at once. He must prevent a small sub-group from starting a discussion, within itself, and eliminate disturbing factors. He must be firm about people walking in and out. He must take steps to reduce or eliminate street noises, and the scraping of chairs, during a meeting.

The Chairman must watch the members to see if the discussion is moving satisfactorily. Nail biting, and restlessness, are cues by which Chairmen judge whether the meeting is reacting satisfactorily. Very often a Chairman has to play it by ear. He should give individual attention also. Timid people, have to be encouraged, so the Chairman should call on them when they have the slightest contribution to make.

The discussion leader or chairman:

1. Secures Agreement on the Agenda.
2. Maintains an atmosphere that encourages full participation
3. Is impartial towards ideas
4. Helps group to establish its own rules of procedure
5. Keeps discussion centred on the problem
6. Summaries out issues and agreements
7. Brings out issues and agreements
8. Makes or provide for the final summary

Good Chairmanship is always an exercise in good manners. Chairing a meeting for 7:30 or even 6:30 PM. The Chairman and Secretary at least, should arrive well before the meeting starts. The chances are that the meeting hall is untidy. If it is a public hall, and if the previous users, were say a Trade Union, then the chances are that the appearances of the room, is as if a tornado has hit it. When the meeting starts, it must be orderly, and in appearance, business like.

Motions are simply requests or ideas presented at the meeting. Someone moves the motion. After that someone seconds it. If no one seconds the motion, it falls through. Once the motion is moved and seconded, then a discussion can follow. Sometimes there are amendments to the motion. These too must be moved and seconded. When the motion is ready, the vote takes place.

There are of course many qualifications and differences as regards motions. The basic pattern is as above. To cover all the niceties, it is wise for a chairman to have a manual on Parliamentary procedure to hand.

When a member wishes to focus attention upon an error of procedure, a violation of a rule, or a digression from the question, he says “Mr Chairman I rise on a point of order.” Points of order like points of information are privileged motions and must be heard immediately. Unhappily some people at meetings abuse points of order, to destroy and disturb a meeting. They come not to participate but to sabotage. The Chairman has a part to play. When the interrupter rises for his fifteenth point of order, the Chairman could say “Sir you have made many interruptions, to the detriment of this meeting, and I must ask you to resume your seat.” If the person persists then the Chairman can close the meeting.

It is only experience as a Chairman that makes a person a good and efficient Chairman. It must be said that a good Chairman is in some ways a tyrant, The Chairman must be fair but at the same time firm.

1. Superstitions the world over
2. Cliff Richard
3. Mick Jagger and The Rolling Stones
4. Young people on Motor-cycles
5. Is the family ‘Old Hat’
6. Should we abolish all Arranged Marriages
7. I U A Richards W I Captain
8. Soap Operas on TV
9. Sir Robin Day

(10) Fish from Britain’s Seas

(11) Mastermind

(12) Paris

(13) Prince Charles

(14) Great cities of Scotland

(15) Private Eyes on TV

(16) Hospital soaps on TV

To make a good speech it is necessary that the speaker has good preparation. Most people who have graduated from a university, are expert at research. For those who are not, it is wise to know where to find, and what to do, with facts. The first place to approach should be your local Public Library.

Most Public Libraries use the Decimal Dewey system. Different numbers are assigned to various categories and topics. Hence Public Speaking comes in at 808.51. The wealth of material in a good library can be overwhelming. It is well to remember that Public Libraries are divided into sections. The first is, the Lending Library, and the second is, the Research Library. The basic differences between the two are that you cannot borrow books from the Reference Section. The Lending Library, as its name implies, lends to readers.

For research, you can find material in the Lending Library. In some places a book can be found in both the Lending and the Reference Library. Often the section on Biography is helpful. If for instance you are researching the topic of Astronomy, reading biographies of, say, Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton and Halley, would be useful. The usual case is that not enough can be found quickly, in the Lending Library. So you must resort to the Reference Library.

A good starting place in a Reference Library is the Encyclopaedia Section. An Encyclopaedia article, is often a good place to begin. A word of caution might be advisable here. Encyclopaedias take ages to produce. Knowledge and techniques can change rapidly, in some disciplines. So, by the time the Encyclopaedia’s volumes are ready, the information in some studies, is already out of date. Of the general Encyclopaedias, the Encyclopaedia Britannica is worthy of note. The new Edition, has

A much expanded Index, and if you are accustomed to the old style of Encyclopaedia, it can be confusing. The rule for all Encyclopaedias is to start with the Index. In this way, you can sometimes find 20 references or, points to check. If you look up alphabetically, you might find just one reference, and it could be insufficient.

For Science and Technology, Van Nostrand’s Scientific Cyclopedia is often to the point. For more detail, the McGraw-Hill Scientific Encyclopaedia is recommended. Also in a Reference Library, are books, which are frequently used for research. The researcher should work from the simple to the complex. Two books on research are:

1. Bagley “Facts and how to find them.” Or
2. R Irwin E R Stanley “the Libraries of London.”

A more comprehensive, if somewhat dated volume is, Theodore Besterman “A world Bibliography of Bibliographies.” An important reference work for the USA, is the “Cumulative Book Index.”

An excellent research tool is the London Telephone Directory. It contains telephone numbers, and addresses of Libraries, in London. Say, you want to research the metal Aluminium, or fuels. If you check in the London Telephone Directory, or ask Directory Enquiries, you can have telephone numbers, quite swiftly. Then you can find a Library, or a centre, with the information that you need. Another resource is called ASLIB. Most ordinary Libraries do not have it. It is, however commonly available from Libraries in Universities, and Polytechnics. ASLIB means, the Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaus. If you need some technical information, on say Physics, or Chemistry, or Sociology, the chances are that some MA or PhD student, has written on it. Provided you obtain permission, to use it, you can find nearly all the facts that you need already written up. Such elaborate measures are only justified, if you are to make a major speech. Also, consult ASLIB about 2 months to 6 weeks, before the speech. The material could take a while to collect. Above all, whenever you are in a Library, gathering facts, consult the Librarian. Many Librarians,

are themselves scholars, often expert in some esoteric aspect of a discipline, and can shed light on a topic where none had existed before. You only have to ask them.

The speaker gathers material, by searching for ideas, illustrations, researching magazines and making notes, with which to build a speech. A manager should have a small filing cabinet, carefully arranged with topics, such as inflation, exports etc. Some of his files should deal with wit and humour. The Late President John F Kennedy was responsible for several items.

When campaigning for the Presidency, the audience gave him a tremendous welcome. The weather was rather cold. Mr Kennedy was supposed to have said “Thank you for such a warm hand, on such a cold morning, as the cow said to the farmer.”

There are of course many books of quotations. A speaker should have at least one. Some worthy of collection are:

(1) Frank S Pepper “Dictionary of Biographical Quotations.”

2. G F Lamb “Horraf’s Book of Quotations.”

Books of anecdotes are also available. Some of Britain’s quality newspapers have a section of the paper called “sayings of the week.” Perhaps a scrapbook is best for these. If you use different types of supporting materials you are bound to create greater interest in your speech, you are obliged to master research methods, and techniques.

It must not be thought that Libraries alone, will give the speaker all of the material, or the best material. Nowadays, videos, TV programmes, films, lectures and meetings are additional sources of inspiration. Do not forget your relatives either. Your topic might be “The D-Day invasion of Normandy, by the Allied Forces.” It might be possible that 45 years on, to talk to a grand - father or a great grandfather who participated in the Normandy Landings.

When it comes to a brief treatment of a topic of current interest magazines are generally more useful than books. The articles are indexed, and one such volume is the British Humanities Index.

Apart from this, there are various Abstracts, which contain the gist of the articles. As there is a myriad of publications, some of which suddenly disappear, looking for past magazine articles, can be irritating, and frustrating.

Note taking should be properly done. Use lined paper only, except for drawings and diagrams. Use foolscap or A4 paper only. Make sure that you get 3 paragraphs on each page, and skip a line or 2 between each pair of paragraphs. Above all write on one side of the paper only. Some people use cards. These are better. Cards and papers should all be the same size. Please, no scrap paper, and no old, tatty

envelopes. Taking notes has a built in advantage. Note taking is much better than depending on memory. Time and effort will be saved, as the speaker can recall information, without going back to the original sources.

Though the presentation of facts is often covered by writers on Public Speaking, how to get those facts is often omitted. For some speakers, they have to perform for an hour. Politicians are known to speak for 3 or 4 hours. If you are in that bracket then your research must be elaborate and thorough. In some areas there has been an explosion of techniques and information. It is incumbent on the Public Speaker to master the academic tools, which control facts and fact gathering. The task might seem to be insurmountable. but help is at hand.

(1) Describe repairing a car engine

(2) Sewing Dresses

(3) Kissograms etc.

(4) What’s wrong with supermarkets

(5) Places I have visited and the wonders I have seen

(6) Might is Right

(7) The music that I listen to

(8) Leisure Time Ideas

(s) Travelling By Air (1^st Class)

(10) Foods that please me

(11) Why a Sense of Humour is Important

(12) Politics is Fascinating

(13) Health: Our Number One Concern

(14) Rules for Budgeting your Income

(15) Is Luck Accidental

16. Here is the News

They are equally important. If you are making a prepared speech, you should lavish time over both the opening and the closing of your speech. Your peroration or end, should be memorable. Very often you will hear speeches which begin terribly, and end limply.

One excellent way to begin a speech is to greet the hearers in their own languages.

For followers of Islam it is “As Salaam aliekum.” This should elicit the reply “Wale cum Salaam.”

For Hindus you say “Namestee.” and for people who are Sikhs you say “Susriacal.”

In Britain these days, you can often have Asian participants. Needless to say, if you have a speaking career on the continent of Europe, it is incumbent on you. to learn to say the word welcome, in as many languages as possible. This could wake up an audience. Frequently, a speaker has to follow a long drawn out performance, or a terribly silly introduction, by the Chairman. Hence, the first few sentences you utter, could make or break your reputation.

The usual style of presentation for a speech is as follows

(1) The Introduction

(2) The Body

(3) The Conclusion or Recommendation

(4) The End or Peroration

Essays and academic assignments, also adhere to this pattern. It works. It is also extremely boring. Although it is recommended chiefly to experienced speakers, you can invert the order, and take, the Conclusions, Recommendations or the End, first. Sometimes you will be obliged to do so. Executives are busy people. There could have been some crises inside or outside of the organisation. Thus at the meeting, if you were allocated 25 minutes for your presentation, it could be reduced to 5 or 10 minutes. At all meetings you should be prepared for the unexpected.

One standard way of opening a speech is by using a relevant opening quotation. One of the best is from “the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. “And into the universe, and why not knowing, nor whence like water wily-nily flowing. And out of it, as the wind along the waste I know not whither, willy-nilly blowing.”

From the great American journalist, and humorist H L Mencken, we have “Democracy is the bludgeoning of the people by the people, for the people”.

The speaker also has to read deeply, and widely. One of the finest stylists in the English Language, was Bertrand, Lord Russell. The prologue to his autobiography is now a classic in English, written or spoken. It is called “What I have lived for”.

Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life. The longing for love, the search for knowledge, and the unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind. These passions, like great winds have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course, over a deep ocean of anguish, reaching the very verge of despair.”

Like a good Chairman, a speaker must put his audience at ease. Moreover, he or she must convince the hearers that the subject, the topic has been thoroughly mastered.

The second way, to start a speech, is to ask a question. It is especially useful for impromptu speeches. The question should in some way reflect the topic being discussed. In addition, a broader general question can sometimes open up the discussion in a novel way.

A third way is to tell a relevant story, or anecdote. Here Biblical stories can be recalled with powerful effect. The story of Samson and Delilah, can of course be recounted at the annual dinner of the city barbers.

A fourth way to open a speech is to use humour. A humorous quotation is fairly safe, but a funny story is fraught with danger, and misunderstanding. Stories about the bishop and the barmaid, or what the bishop said to the parrot, could be in very poor taste. DO NOT tell stories with an ethnic flavour. You might feel safe at a gathering of Irish people, if you tell a joke about, say a Chinaman. You could arouse the anger of the President, who has a Chinese father-in-law, just arrived from Hong-Kong. Humour, or what passes for humour, can backfire.

A strong, arresting statement, is another way of starting a speech. You have to pause for effect. Then, start slowly, but powerfully. A phrase that is useful to remember is, to “come in like a bulldozer.”’ Very often this can apply to your opening words, of any speech. Above all, never put on false modesty, or apologise for imagined, or real shortcomings. Generally the audience has no interest in such matters. Go straight into the speech.

Sometimes, the Chairman introduces the speaker, and it is an exaggerated statement. The Chairman can be enthusiastic, even laudatory. He is not really allowed to be unctuous and sycophantic. It can ruin your whole performance. This is one occasion where humour is justified. You can also involve a relative. You can say, “my mother, or my father, or my daughter believes every word of the Chairman. As a matter of fact they wrote his speech, “ or “I have noted every word of the chairman’s introduction. Tonight I shall tell them to my wife.” The guiding principle is, to say a few words that humble you, and pull you down from the pedestal, on which you have been placed, by the Chairman. One golden rule for all Chairmen is, do not go for overkill, especially when introducing a speaker.

ENDINGS are similar to openings, but you need not be bound by the conventions. Do remember that the deepest impression of the speech, should be reserved for the end. A novel ending is to use a piece of music. This could be a contemporary piece, or a selection from classical or operatic themes. One word of warning. Your judgement as to what is suitable must be impeccable. Music in a speech can fall flat.

As with the opening, a strong statement is an ideal way of ending. Perhaps the late John F Kennedy’s inauguration in 1961 was exemplary. He said “Ask not what America can do for you, but rather what you can do for America.”

For a speech to actuate, a poem is ideal. A favourite quote is “Ask not for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for me and it tolls for thee.”

Another way of ending a speech is to use a form of repetition. There are 3 basic types. The first is a Summary or Recapitulation, especially if the body of the speech has been lengthy or complicated. An abridgement - a prйcis of the content of the speech is often preferable to a point by point summary. A restatement is used where the speaker wishes to emphasise the landmarks, the central idea, or thesis of his speech.

Where speeches to actuate are concerned, there can be an appeal for action. The action can be immediate as; sign this petition now; or attend the rally at the end of the month, which is for future action.

Some authorities recommend other strategies. The key point to realise, is that the opening, and the ending, of a speech must both be memorable. How this is to be achieved is one of the most fascinating, and perplexing matters in the art of Public Speaking.

(1) Economic Sanctions

(2) Complaining against shoddy goods and services

(3) Coping with a broken heart

(4) What person would you like to be in History

(5) Comedians

(6) Giants of Hollywood

(7) My best Friend

(8) How to lose weight

(9) 2 Holiday resorts I have visited

(10) Jobs I have held previously

(11) 2 Sports announcers

(12) American athletes

(13) Britain’s National Football Team

(14) Life in the city

(15) The West End

16. 4 ways to stop Smoking

The Body of the speech, is, perhaps, its most important section, and it should be prepared with the utmost care. The points made under the Lecture “Methods and Techniques of Research”, should be reviewed, in conjunction with this exercise. For the body of the speech, you need facts, points, and you have to present them powerfully. The speaker has to expound his or her theme, and put across his or her message. You can preach, explain and lecture. For managers, this is the section, where the speaker illustrates, the content of his report. For some Executives and Directors, reports from managers are a pain. If the manager penetrates to the Boardroom, where he has to present, or read a report, it can be a recipe for disaster. One reason is, that the report was badly written. Another reason is, that the matter has been poorly researched. It is true to say, that many of the principles of good writing, apply with equal force, to good speaking.

There are certain patterns, which are useful for organising a speech. The first is chronological. Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow; or Past, Present, and Future. Sometimes the speaker will emphasise the Past. For managers they must give only a cursory reference to the company’s past, performance and must stress growth and plans, can sometimes be included for completeness.

Another pattern is, the YOU - WE - I one. This scheme, starts off with the speaker appealing to the audience. This is the YOU part. Then he includes himself in the next part. Then in the final section, he says why he will do, and accomplish things, for the audience.

A favourite plan for building a speech is the Problem-Solution one.

It has these steps:

1. Something is wrong.

2. Why is it wrong? (Here you can expand on the harm done talent

and money wasted etc.)

3. How to solve it? (Raising money, cutting costs, Expansion etc.)

4. Let us solve it.

Yet another pattern is the Definitional Pattern. It may explain likenesses and differences from other things. It may describe other examples. It may explain causes, activities, or results. Topics like “What is malnutrition, or what is capitalism, are in this category.

The Topical Pattern is based on some method of grouping parts into suitable categories. The main ideas may be assembled to explain function attributes, or qualities like ability, cost and importance. Many topical arrangements are familiar; civil, military, creative, critical, practical, theoretical, legal, moral, economic, logical, scientific, political, educational etc. A Topical arrangement is arbitrary rather than causal or logical, in that the main ideas of the speech are organised for emphasis.

The speech proceeds either from cause -to-effect or from effect-to-cause. The results or causal factors may, when necessary be classified into social, economic, political or other categories. The causal pattern is the basis for all speeches of Argument and Persuasion.

Another useful pattern is the LOGICAL PATTERN. It proceeds from certain premises or ideas, to a conclusion by carefully reasoned steps. All points are established by acceptable evidence.

Sometimes life is calm, and at other times, the world is turned upside down, with crisis after crisis. These days Europe is moving to a stronger unity. A conference called by an exporting firm, could have guests and participants from all over Britain, and from North and South America, The Caribbean, Africa and Japan. If you make any speech before such a gathering, you will be on your mettle. These people will almost certainly be very shrewd business people, and some might hold political office as well. This is no time for a practice speech, for the input of a neophyte. In particular, the body of the speech will have to be perfect. You cannot afford useless repetition, clichйs, waffle and padding. You must know how to arrange them and how to select the best ones, for emphasis.

The public speaker must be able to communicate. For managers the group can be as small as the Board of Directors, which can number anything from 6 to 12. It is sometimes difficult to gauge the length of your speech. You might have prepared for a 20-minute speech. There might be some difficulty. One of say, 3 speakers is going to be late, or cannot appear at all. You are asked to speak, for another 10 minutes.

Usually, you will have to amplify the middle of your speech. Conversely previous speakers have over run their time. In this case you will have to cut down the length of your speech. Again the usual place is in the body of the speech.

The body of the speech is the core of the talk. In real life, there is often, precious little time to prepare properly. You might have an expert, a professional speaker on a topic. He or she travels regularly and lives 200 miles away. About 40 minutes before the start of the meeting, a message comes saying the speaker is fog-bound in Paris, and has, with apologies cancelled the lecture. The audience is restless, expectant. The Chairman is desperate. He asks timidly, deferentially, if you could do the lecture. You are advised to grasp the opportunity with both hands. It cannot be regularly guaranteed. An impromptu speech can usually be negotiated; but an impromptu lecture? Are there any rules for that? You probably have only 5 minutes while the Chairman is introducing you. What you must do is to chart your speech. If you start from nowhere, you will certainly get there. The impromptu lecture is usually a nightmare.

It has next no rules. It must be approached with confidence, even though you have only a glimmer of knowledge. Even if you fail, you will have the gratitude, of at least the Chairman. You can chance your arm with the opening and the ending, but the middle must be planned as carefully as time permits.

Hence the Body of the speech must be carefully planned. You should have an order of importance, so as to stress the main ideas. Practice of course, will eventually give you fluency. If you are to be judged or evaluated, it is the Body of the speech that will come under scrutiny. As the main part of the speech, it must be thoroughly prepared.

(1) After Dinner Speeches

(2) Death where is thy sting, O grave thy victory

(3) Scandinavia

(4) Inventions

(5) The Kennedys

(6) Margaret Thatcher

(7) Mr Neil Kinnock

(8) James Bond

(9) The uses of Accountancy

(10) Mathematics - Love it or leave it

(11) Borrowing Money

(12) Miss World

(13) The best beer in England is

(14) Weight lifting and body building

(15) Species which inhabit the sea

16. Hanging Wallpapers

Microphone techniques refer to those occasions when a speech is to be done, where a microphone is used. Today such a speech can be done on a video, film, radio or television. Perhaps the making of a speech, out-of-doors, is a 5^th category. You could be on some platform, speaking at a school sports day. This is usually out-of-doors. Again you could be at factory gate encouraging your work force to return to work, after a month long strike. Hopefully, the weather will be kind. As you want a positive result, your speech must be strong and persuasive. There are certain precautions, which should be taken. The first is, if you are to use a platform, make sure that it is solidly constructed. There is nothing more ridiculous, than a collapsing platform. Make sure that you have minimum of supporting dignitaries, behind you. Do avoid being object of mirth, and inadvertent ridicule. Sometimes you will use a loud hailer. At other times, you will, if you are fortunate have a microphone or two.

The other disaster area concerns the weather. If the meeting out-of-doors is in the afternoon, do check with the weather forecast. If the weather is going to be relay dreadful, the best course is to cancel the meeting, until the weather improves. It is the acid test of a public speaker, to stand on a soap box, on a bitterly cold day, with no public address system, with rain, sleet or snow lashing down, and a wind howling around your ears. As a matter of fact it is only trade union people, who have mastered this skill. It is wise not to attempt it.

The microphone has been a powerful invention. It is perhaps just over 70 years old. For people who have exalted positions, and small voices it is perfect. It is wise for all the public speaker to learn to speak without the help of a microphone. The speaker has to learn to throw his or her voice and to project himself or herself. The reason is of course, that the microphone goes dead, seemingly at the most embarrassing moments. At this time the public address technician (a very important man for a public speaker) is either drunk, hiding or gone home. Miraculously sometimes he appears, and with both hands full of wires, he does the impossible. A wise move is, to retire until the technician is finished. If you are speaking while he is working, the audience will get restless and distracted. Usually the technician is finished in a few minutes.

The other category of microphones to know, are the naughty ones. These work, but they express themselves with humming, loud screeches, and intermittent amplification. One obligatory act for a public speaker, is to pick up the microphone gently, before he or she uses it, and tapping it lightly. The noise, if any, tells you if it is live, and the level of amplification. If a very tall speaker is followed by a short one, trouble can ensure. It is often hilarious. It is forbidden for a speaker to adjust the height of the microphone if it is not properly fixed, then there is a chance that the microphone could slide down to the level of the speakers’ knees. It is a most ludicrous spectacle. Ideally a microphone should be adjusted, so that it is about six inches from the speakers lips. Once the mike is live, your normal voice is sufficient.

Certain rules exist for microphone techniques in-doors. This is mainly for radio and TV. Conversely a great many TV and radio programmes are made in some strange and dangerous places like earthquake zones, and battlefields. The rule is the same for radio and TV. The invention of radio and later on TV, meant that a speaker’s audience can be in thousands, hundreds of thousands, and in these days of satellite communication, in millions. If you are careless in grammar or if you are profane, you can have a global rather than a national audience. Knowing this fact, causes many excellent speakers to freeze. Nevertheless the magic of electronic communication imposes, relative simple demands on the speakers. It is the job of engineers to use their equipment and technical-skills, to communicate, with a minimum of distortion, the words the speaker utters to the cameras or microphones.

Always have a script if you are to appear on radio or TV. Many so-called “live” shows are often carefully scripted. Otherwise you will run unnecessary risks. Good speech remains good speech, whether or not you use a MICROPHONE OR CAMERA. There are important differences. One is the size of the audience, and other is that the average public address system is like a minefield. The reliability of some systems is atrocious, and some exhibit a state of despair. Nowadays there are miniature microphones, which are barely noticeable when attached to the speakers tie, or jacket. Of course they fall off-into your soup, if you are at a table sometimes. They are perfect for interviewing.

Microphones should be used only when necessary. If a speaker can be heard without shouting and straining, he or she is much more effective. Most mikes will immobilise a speaker, to one position on a platform. Without a mike a speaker can move about the platform to a blackboard, flipchart or other visual aids.

Some of the benefits of microphones are easy audibility from amplification. Moreover the speaker can talk more intimately, to a large audience than he could otherwise. This perhaps is the secret of the effective use of microphones. The speaker can talk to a large audience with the same volume, voice gestures, and inflexions, appropriate for a small group. The worst abuse of a public address system, is to use your voice to carry to the far reaches of a vast auditorium, as though a riot was in progress. Moreover, you should avoid putting your hands on the microphone and do not cough or laugh explosively into it.

The great advantage of TV over radio, is that it lets the audience see what is taking place. Many programmes, perhaps the majority are pre-recorded, and then edited. Nevertheless some programmes cannot be pre-recorded. A riot, a natural disaster, or a revolution, cannot be scripted. TV allows speakers to be seen and heard. The speakers can be seen in more intimate close-ups, than in another medium.

TV like radio is admirably adapted to panel discussions, and interviews. The ideal setting for such exercises is a living room, a study room or a conference room. TV can cover 3 or 4 speakers at a fairly close range, and do close-ups, of individuals. A great deal more is today available, with video cassette recorders. Many firms now use videos to train their staff, and to market their products. Such activities are indicative of the versatility of the microphones.

Language is at the centre of all communication. People, who have to manage, should try to master all aspects of language. Public speakers need language to get across, to communicate. At any given time, and in any given country, dialects exist. Dialects are the variety of spoken language, which are peculiar to a geographical region or community.

Standard English has several dialects. The Cockneys of London have their own dialect, and Caribbean people have several dialects, of English, too. India has several major languages, each with many dialects in tow. Even if he cannot speak them, a public speaker should be aware of their existence, and act accordingly. In Britain where English is a second, or third language, for many Asian people, interpreters have to relay the speaker’s message. It looks or sounds odd, when up to 4 or 5 people are interpreting, but it happens. Dialect-speakers can sometimes be incomprehensible to speakers, in the formal code. Words are spoken differently, with different stresses and inflexions. As there is no understanding, communication cannot take place.

A further point concerns vocabulary. Always strive to enlarge and deepen your vocabulary. A person who has all the normal faculties, will have the following vocabularies. They are all connected to organs in the head and hands.

1. A seeing vocabulary.

If this is well developed, the person can read well, and perhaps,

read in a foreign language also.

2 A hearing vocabulary.

This refers to the speaker’s ability to listen and understand. If the speaker is German or Japanese, and the manager can perform competently, in these languages, then new business can arrive, for the firm. Not enough firms realise that if they are to achieve exporting contracts, then linguists should be more widely employed.

3. A speaking vocabulary.

A speaking vocabulary is of course directly connected with Public Speaking. Sometimes one type of vocabulary is predominant. In communication all vocabularies have to be enlarged.

4. A writing vocabulary.

Some people write well. Some cannot write at all. As ownership of firms can pass down from father to children, you can come across managers, who are ill equipped to communicate. It is vital that so-called self-made men and women, acquire a fluency with words, and master the 4 types of vocabulary.

Some people ask, how can they enrich and enlarge their vocabulary? One way is to get a dictionary and a small notebook. At the front, you can list all the new words as regards language, and at the back, you can list all the technical words and terms. Use the newspapers, especially the ‘quality’ newspapers, for this. You will find that even the tabloid press employs a far richer vocabulary, than some people would have us believe. Play spelling games too. Can you find 15 or 20 words beginning with CAT? e.g. catapult - catastrophe. Some words have a double consonant woollen, cotton. Some have double vowels e.g. poor, tool. Spelling games need not be dull. Spelling;- can be centred on boy’s, and girl’s names, Richard and Harry are OK, but what if the names are Indian, or Pakistani, or God forbid, Sri Lankan names? Like Polish and Russian names Sri Lankan names are a mouthful.

Another way to increase your vocabulary, is to speak to other people who have the benefit of a better education, than you do. You have to choose good models, study them carefully, and then carry out good practice. If your vocabulary is inadequate, you will limp along, as a communicator and a manager.

It goes without saying that if you want to progress you will have to read, deeply and analytically. You will also have to read up, on the subjects of English Language, communication, and Public Speaking. Some people say that the public speaker in his preparation must struggle to find what the French call “le mot juste,” not so much the word that is best, but the one that is apt. This can entail some searching, The best places are

1. A Dictionary

2. A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms

3. Any of several collections of words named a Thesaurus.

4. Roget’s Thesaurus

A speech also has to be tailored to the audience. A Prime Minister speaking to the party faithful, will adjust his or her language, if he or she were addressing the 20 senior judges in the land. Sometimes the apt word is a small one, at other times, it is a long one. Some writers imply, that a small word is automatically preferable, to a long word. Unfortunately people have to listen to the speech, the audience. Words also deal with patterns of speech, and rhythm, and grace.

A speech must be instantly understood, if it is going to be clear, and it must be clearly spoken. Above all, do not speak in abbreviations, or technical jargon. Computer people beware! Less of CAD or PERT – but more of Computer Aided Design, and Program Evaluation and Review Technique. Some managers and supervisors, have to make written reports. A great many of these are unreadable. The chances are that if your reports are unreadable, your speeches too will be incomprehensible.

English grammar and the formal code of English, are out of favour in most schools today. Some people bemoan this fact. Children learn creative writing, dialect literature; and things like spelling, Capital letters, Punctuation, Quotation marks, and simple good usage, have to take their chances, and battle for survival. There is a brilliant American poet EE Cummings, who writes poetry, without capital letters, or punctuation. Please do not imitate him. Like Frankie Howerd, he knows what he is doing.

A knowledge of Formal Grammar is often beneficial to both writer and speaker. There are 8 parts of speech: –

1. Nouns

2. Pronouns

3. Verbs

4. Adverbs

5.Adjectives

6. Conjunctions

7. Prepositions

8.Interjections

You can invent games with Parts of speech. How many nouns do you have in the room, or on the pages of 2 or 3 books. How many verbs on one page of a newspaper. Then you can investigate. Literary devices, like Alliteration, Personification, and Similes. How far to go with formal grammar?

This depends on if the speaker enjoys it. The secret of course, is to read the masters of prose, and poetry – Shakespeare, Chaucer, Conrad, Gibran, Tagore, HL Mencken, Hemmingway etc.

This is basically how the speaker says words. If the speaker uses words carefully, and accurately, then he or she is said to have good diction. Though slang is usually frowned on, it has a place, if it is an ‘in’ language for a particular group e.g. Cockneys or Harlemites. Beware of switching a slang term from its environment, to another. For an American pop star to say “Baby, or Honey” to say, a USSR, or Chinese audience, he runs the risk of being misunderstood.

There are many traps for speakers, who refuse to work at their grammar and diction. Incompetence in spelling, can be hidden in a speech. Bad grammar cannot. So please, no, “It have, you does, or we was. .”Well-educated people, find flawed speeches like these totally infuriating.

Perhaps the teaching of English will be improved, if more opportunities were provided at secondary school level, for Public Speaking and Communication. English exams could have the option of oral exams. A world of joy and satisfaction awaits all those who make the effort. There is always something new to learn in Public Speaking. Once you have ascended that mountain however, the view is splendid.

1. The world in 2050

2. Computers

3. The British Navy

4. Harvesting the sea

5 Watches and Clocks

6 Secretaries

7. Plastic Money

8. My personal Wardrobe

9. Soho

10. Mortgages

11. Forms of Credit in Britain

12. People with Handicaps

13. Mainstream Education in Britain

14. Privatisation

15. Music Hath Charms to Soothe the Savage Breast

16. Street Markets

One amazing fact is, that many of the world’s great performers in showbiz – films, the arts and the stage, suffer from nervousness.

They really suffer. They have attacks of vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating, and headaches. The attacks are just before the performance. Nevertheless they compose themselves, and give the usual superb performances.

Hence, if public entertainers react in this way, we should not be surprised if lesser mortals exhibit similar symptoms, when faced with a challenge Like a speech in public. As a matter of fact, a speaker, well prepared, gifted even, can suffer acute nervousness. The trouble is that it can happen to a speech maker anywhere. It can be in front of an audience of any size, and of any kind. For some people a small, intimate,

High-powered audience, like the Board of Directors, fills the speaker with dread, and terror. Even where the audience is positive, supportive and friendly, the speaker just goes to pieces.

Some people call it stage fright. In many cases it is pure panic, and the speaker is reduced to a bundle of nerves. A stage is not always necessary. Stage fright often happens in a radio-recording studio. Usually the speaker has just a microphone, an engineer, and sometimes an interviewer as company. Some of the worst occurrences of stage fright, happen in radio recording studios. Part of the reason is that the potential audience could be in millions, and the speaker gets cold feet.

Television is much worse. The audience can see you as well; though you are heard by groups of 3 or 4, in a living room, the audience is usually in millions. This deters many good speakers, from using radio and TV. There is only one caution. If you are to speak on TV or radio, even for 5 minutes, please take a script, with you. This can help to combat your nervousness.

Stage fright has very little to do, with education. People who are poorly educated, can blunder as much as an Oxbridge graduate. The Royal Family, are not immune either. Perhaps the worst form of distress, is Freezing. The speaker just freezes, and cannot utter a word, or a sound. Perhaps the best place to freeze is at the start of your speech. After a few minutes, you can sit down, or the chairman will intervene, and ask you to resume your seat. The worst place to freeze is during the speech. Despite careful preparation, your mind goes blank, 10 minutes after you have started. If you had the foresight to bring your notes, then you can compose yourself, and pick up the thread of your argument. Some broadcasts on Radio and TV, are pre-recorded. This is often best. The engineers, kind souls, often remove the awful bits. They can make you look good, or they can make you look terrible. Do try and get them on your side.

Is there any cure for stage – fright? If the speaker realises that adrenaline is flowing, and that he must harness this force, you can make a vastly improved speech. Most top actors realise this and behave accordingly. The basis of stage fright is fear. It has mental, emotional and physical manifestations. It is at its mildest, uncomfortable, and at its worst, deflating, and embarrassing.

One method of combating stage fright is to face the challenge and speak. You can learn from a poor speech. You can learn nothing, if you make no speech. Do not avoid the situation, but face your problem with determination.

Deep breathing has its adherents. 3 or 4 deep breaths before you start. If you are in a position before the audience, then you take 3 deep breaths, exhaling slowly each time. This is specific as the authorities ever get. Needless to say, only a few are helped, by this advice.

If the stage-fright is only mild, you can try to develop self-confidence, learn to relax at all times, and in all conditions, to develop pleasure in talking, and to cultivate a positive desire, to communicate. Hopefully these can turn the tide.

In a similar vein, the speaker should try to increase his or her knowledge of public speaking. If stage fright is deemed to be a matter of confidence, then a comprehensive knowledge of public speaking can overcome the difficulty. The speaker knows, that he has the knowledge to conquer the challenge of communication. One thing helps. This is a good memory. If your memory is not very good, do arrive at the meeting with your notes, the landmarks, the guiding lights, clearly, and carefully arranged.

What to do if stage- fright persists and is ruining your career? The only reasonable course, seems to be, to consult some kind of therapist.

Mannerisms are just habitual personal tricks of expression, or behaviour. They

are basically of two types. First there are verbal types, also called interpolations and physical ones.

Verbally, some speakers interpose, meaningless words and phrases such as “Ah, Er, You know, right,” and more recently “you know’ what I mean.” They add nothing to a speech. In reality, they are boring, and can destroy a speech. They are commonly found with novice speakers. They can persist unless corrective actions are taken. One strategy is to count the number of “Ah’s” etc. in a speech, and urge the speaker to eliminate them. The best thing about interpolations, is that, an English Comedian, Frankie Howerd has made them into an art form. Please do not imitate him. He knows what he is doing.

As regards the physical mannerisms it is important that you stand still. If a hand mike is provided, then you will probably be expected, to move to flip charts, boards etc. If a podium or lectern is provided, you will probably be expected to stay in one place. Also, do stand erectly. If you droop or hunch over the mike, the audience could be put off and alienated. Good posture, is important, for a good speech.

Some speakers are prone to fidget. Unhappily some chairmen do so as well. This habit of fidgeting, is most off-putting for the audience. The favourite items are ties, watches, buttons on your waistcoat or coat, handkerchiefs, and hair. Continuous rearrangement is sure to distract, and even annoy your hearers. It goes without saying that all items of clothing should be totally secure.

Two mannerisms need a special word. The first are the speaker's glasses. Some authorities call it the ON-OFFER. The speaker takes off his glasses and he points them at the audience. Then he puts them on again, it is so bad, that some audiences are extremely upset. The second mannerism, involves the coat lapels of a suit. The speaker grips them, and performs a variety of tricks. As it is a style favoured by older speakers, there are also large protuberant bellies, involved, It is totally distracting. The best reaction from this coat lapel routine is ridicule.

Equally disturbing, are the rock and rollers. People who rock back and forth, or rock from side to side are spoiling their speeches. It is forbidden as well, to rattle change, or play with pens or pencils. One good habit is, that if your spouse accompanies you, when you are to make a speech, give to him or her, all loose change, pens, pencils, keys etc. Do not tempt fate and ascend a platform with these items.

Perhaps the best strategy to iron out this selection of common faults, is practice. A spouse, a friend or a relative can, if they are observant and candid, help you to improve. Practise before a full-length mirror as well. A proper speaker should have a dynamic discontent, and a restless striving for perfection. The best is often not enough. A good speaker must aim for perfection.

1. The Law and Its Uses

2. The Commonwealth Games

3. Landscape Painting

4. Flower Gardens

5. Stately Homes

6. The benefits of Vegetarianism

7. Textiles

8. Heavyweight Boxing Champions

9. Easter

10. TV Wrestlers

11. Holy Books of the World

12. Exams Good or Bad

13. Unemployment

14. Choosing a pair of shoes

15. Advertising a new product

16. Should people wear furs

If you have a career as a Public Speaker, or media person, an opportunity could arrive, for you to perform an important speech - a ‘big’ speech. Do take it with both hands even if you are nervous, or are aware, or afraid of your limitations as a speaker. No one is perfect, and you should regard the challenge, as a learning opportunity as well. Making the speech should have 2 phases, 2 parts. The first part concerns the preliminaries, and preparation, and the second part relates to the speech itself.

The preparation, especially for a ‘big’ speech must be thorough. Research should be on the topic, and also on Public Speaking. Brush up your Public Speaking techniques by consulting relevant books in a library. The chances are that the best, and largest selection of titles, will be found in the Reference Library. Please use it. Make notes so that you are clear in your mind, how you are going to deliver the speech.

Preparation also includes the consultation of books and current magazines on the topic. Check at least one Encyclopaedia, for relevant facts and articles. Specialist libraries and information bureaux, might have to be consulted too. It depends on the subject as well, if you want to provide the latest, the most correct information. Very often information and beliefs in matters of science, change every year. Make sure that your information is up-to-date. Otherwise when you have made your speech, someone will point out, that part of your speech was both wrong and out-of-date. Do try to avoid this. Proper research, will see you through.

Where the Speech, for the first ‘big’ speech, is concerned, it could be a good idea, if you write it out in full. There are a few occasions when you might have to read a speech. The chances are that you will not have to read a ‘big’ speech. So why write it out in full? This is to calm your nerves, and reduce your anxiety, and give you an opportunity to time your speech. Is it too brief? Is it too long? Is it just right? Whatever happens, one of the best guiding principles in Speechcraft is - “NEVER READ A SPEECH”. There are certain exceptions, but reading a speech makes eye contact difficult, and an important ingredient of a good speech is lost.

Once you have assembled your speech, put it on to cards in note form, i.e. with the main headings. The cards should be firm, and measure about 10 cm by 15 cm. Find some way whereby you could glance at the cards, to remind you of the major points of the speech, and turn them over, without distracting the audience. Some people prefer to shuffle their cards, but some easily distracted people in the audience, could be affected. You should now be ready, and you should use a mirror to practice hand gestures. Speak sections of it, aloud, so that you have the voice gestures correctly done.

It depends on whether the speech is in the morning, or in the evening. Most ‘big’ speeches are in the evening, unless important audiences are in other, more distant time zones. If the speech is an evening one, then your normal routine for the day, should ensue. Avoid if you can, last minute rehearsals and preparations. Ideally, for a ‘big’ speech, a month’s notice or more, should be adequate. In practice, the notice can vary from one or two weeks, to nothing at all. Many ‘big’ speeches have had to be made, owing to the sudden demise, of a major speaker.

Next, you should arrive at the venue, as early as is practicable. Ideally the Chairman and secretary, should be at the venue, to greet you. Ideally they should be in position Ѕ an hour before the proceedings start. If they are, then you can have an inspection the venue. Check to see if there is a Public Address system, and gently test it, to see if it is installed properly, and is working adequately.

Soon, the audience files in, and you take your seat, usually to the right of the Chairman, of the evening. At the stipulated time, the meeting starts. Of course you must have your notes. Take a deep breath or two, and then you can begin to speak. Have an impressive, a good beginning, and a memorable phrase to end the speech. If you have prepared properly, and if you realise that a ‘big’ speech is nearly always one to impress, then the chances are, that you will succeed.

1. The Piano

2. How To Ski

3. Lenin

4. Children - Good or Bad

5. How To Improve TV

6. Vodka

7. Making Salads

8. Russian Poets

9. Vitamins

10. The Olympic Games

11. Chemistry

12. Make love not war!

13. The Circus

14. Should we have more stations on the Metro

15. Geology - what it can give us

16. How to bake a chicken

17. Games in Snow

18. How to bake a cake

19. Destroy all Nuclear Arms

20. How to reduce traffic Accidents

21. Bananas

22. America

23. Pollution

Often some speakers will perform with impressive, thrilling power. The secret is that this skill, this attribute can be learnt, even if you have a small, a thin voice. Many people would like to speak like good film actors, or the top stage actors and actresses. In England the late Richard Burton, and Sir Ian McKellen, are two outstanding examples. Just one super lady is the actress Maggie Smith. From the USA Orson Wells was a creditable practitioner. They could act with brilliance and their secret was that they could speak their lines, with tremendous, brilliant power. Can ordinary mortals achieve the resonance, the diction, and style of the great ones?

Using your normal tone and level of voice, you can speak comfortably for 15 minutes. Some people can speak for as long as 30 minutes, in this fashion. Most people will use the muscles and organs located in the throat. After about 30 minutes, tiredness in the voice, and discomfort will set in. So what can you sensibly do, if you have to perform for an hour, or two hours? This is one of the secrets of actors, actresses, and public speakers. They use a muscle in the body called the diaphragm.

So where is it located? If you stand up and place your hands over the top of your stomach you can find it. Breathe in and hold your breath for 1 to 2 minutes. Then breathe out. You should then feel something move in your stomach. It is your diaphragm, a strong muscle at the top of your stomach. If you relax and contract it, as you speak, you can both take the pressure of your throat, and increase the power of your speaking. This is one of the secrets of politicians, actors and other public speakers. Using the diaphragm, you can also combat hoarseness. When you have to project yourself, throw your voice, with or without a microphone, use your diaphragm!! This skill is handy if your microphone goes dead, or if you are in large hall addressing a large audience, without a Public address system. The key point to remember is that the voice can be trained.

It should not be assumed that the only objective is volume, loudness, when you speak. How loudly should the speaker speak? He should speak loudly enough, to be heard at the back of the audience, but not so loudly, as to be a source of irritation. It is a question of both judgement and experience. Too quiet a voice, can irritate too. You will soon know, as comments such as “We can’t hear you” and “Please speak up”; will come from all sections of the audience.

Just as you have variety and gestures with your hands, so too you have gestures with your voice. The volume should not be monotonously strong, or weak, but should change to bring out differences in meaning. Some people are extraordinarily good at this, speaking powerfully one moment, and 5 or 10 minutes later dropping their voices, so low, that the audience leans forward, craning their necks, to catch each syllable, each whisper. These are voice gestures, and variation of loudness is a requirement for emphasis. One of the most difficult things for a novice speaker, is to learn to make important ideas stand out. This can often best be done, by uttering important words, phrases, and ideas, with additional force.

Stress is loudness or force applied to a word or a syllable. Stress also includes features of pitch and length. Russian has many stresses on words, and to a novice speaker, or a student of the language, their unexpectedness can be a delight, especially when he or she gets them right. An English word, of more than one syllable, has stress on at least one syllable, as part of the pronunciation of the word.

With most speakers and most people, an almost endless variety of vocal qualities is possible, yet there are some vocal qualities which may be found wanting e.g. The voice may sound small wispy or weak. It may be breathy, raspy, husky or hoarse. It can be hollow, muffled, throaty, or swallowed. It may be harsh, strident, or piercing. Poor vocal qualities, often express attitudes not intended by speaker such as whining, boredom, annoyance or belligerence.

So it behoves all of as, to cultivate good voice quality, elegance of speech, and good diction. This is the surest path to excellence and power in Public Speaking.

1. Women’s Boots

2. Books

3. Moscow Town Centre

4. My Mother/My Parents

5. The person I will marry

6. Russian Recipes

7. Russian Music

8. Radio Stations, Radio-Ga-Ga

9. ‘In’ places in Moscow

10. Russian Fashion

11. The power of song

12. The Body

13. Mathematics

14. My favourite Restaurant

15. Russian Costume

16. The Ballet

17. Russian Theatre

18. Your clothes can tell your character

19. Great athletes I have seen

If you have a measure of skill and experience in Public Speaking you could be persuaded to conduct a workshop in Public Speaking. Alternatively, you could suggest it at your club, social group, or political party. In either case Public Speaking Training is an esteemed and worth while activity. So, what items should be selected? How should you deliver the product? What emphases should you make, and how should you construct the actual course? To be effective, you need to read about the subject, and gather facts, especially from research done on language, writing, and expression.

Several styles of timing are available. There could be a lecturing component. It is wise not to be carried away by this. The group could actually want to do practice speeches, especially Impromptu speeches. Try to accommodate this desire, rather than do something, which might be viewed as egotistical. Be clear in your mind, as to what service you are providing. It is a good policy to cater for the needs of the group, and the Timing should reflect this. If you allocate 75% or 80% of the time where you the teacher, are speaking, then you are not really teaching public speaking. Nevertheless you can start with a 50% allocation to the participants, and gradually over a period of time, work up to a situation, where it is the group, the students or participants who speak for 80% of the allotted time.

The other point about Timing concerns the length of each session. This partly depends on the size of the class. An hour or 90 minutes is adequate but with a large group you will probably need 2 hours. More than 2 hours means that you will probably tire or at least feel tired. This can be counter productive. For extended sessions make sure that you have a 5 or 10 minute break.

This is a tricky question. It depends first on whether there is a main lecturer with relief lecturers, or teachers. In this case a large group say 30 people, can be handled. In any event keep the lecturing brief. Planning your program where 3 people are teaching, you can have an allocation of 20 minutes, for the principal speaker, with 10 minutes each for the supporting speakers. This consumes about an hour. A 10 or 15 minute break is needed. Afterwards, it is the practice session. For the first few sessions do only Impromptu speeches, each of 3 minutes duration. If 20 people perform that is another hour. So large classes require a huge input in time.

Perhaps the ideal class is about 15 people. Probably with 15 people each one could do a practice speech, each session. One or preferably 2 teachers are needed. Yet excellent results can be obtained with one teacher, taking under 10 students of Public Speaking. When you have numbers of students in double figures, then you need a relief teacher. A good ratio is one teacher for every 7 or 8 students.

It is not only facts that have to be gathered. You need to collect ideas too. A few writers in English, are Jenner, Dale Carnegie, Prochnow, Gowers, and John Gross. Each planner will have certain authors that he or she prefers.

Some subjects that come to mind are Astronomy, Philosophy, Sociology, Journalism, Economics, Mathematics and Statistics, Psychology, Poetry and Language. This list, of course, is not exhaustive, and will depend on how the practice speeches are arranged. The planner should take measures to enlarge the vocabularies of the audience, and to ensure that new words are methodically recorded.

Specifically, the planner, will have to review facts as regards the voice, and speech impediments, and how to overcome them. Motivation and achievement need to be examined too, in order to encourage shy persons to come forward. Hence, fact gathering is a vital activity, an important strategy.

A prepared speech is a practice speech of a longer duration. 8 to 10 minutes is normal. Some people sail through this. For others it is agony, a torture. The participant should have up to 2 weeks to prepare the speech. Then the delivery, on the day, with all the lessons learnt in Impromptu speeches - language, diction, Eye contact, and timing. Before doing it, the class should have a lesson on Prepared Speeches, and the participant, should have close teaching of the art of making a prepared speech. Some people will still come out, and freeze.

Criticism, carping, cavilling, brutal, and brutish, has no place in public speaking, but evaluation has. Some things could be done correctly. Stress these, and point to the areas that need improvement. Be careful of negativity in public, and try not to be a smart Alec. The planner has to select a general evaluator, and individual evaluators, for each session. These offices should be rotated, so that every person gets an opportunity. It is not a device for revenge.

Well, once you have fixed. the date or dates, for the workshop you will find the research and preliminary work, a power of strength. You can then go out and perform, with all guns blazing. Well, Good Luck!!

1. Ice Skaters

2. Ice Figure Dancing

3. Football and footballers

4. The Olympics - Russian Champions

5. Major Libraries in Moscow

6. Russian Cakes

7. Russian Sweets

8. Russian Magazines

9. Foreign Language Publications in Russia

10. Classical Music

11. The Ukraine

12. Siberia

13. Words

14. Television Game Shows

15. The Bolshoi Theatre

16. Red Square

17. Moscow Centre - Bookshops

18. McDonald’s Restaurants

19. Matroushka Dolls

20. Russian Icons

Sometimes firms will do it. At other times it will be a Ministry or Government Agency. Still further, it will be a religious body, or an International agency, like one from the United Nations. Seminars and Conferences are popular, as means of finding out, and getting information and ideas, across to people.

Conferences come in various sizes - small, medium, large and in between. The first stop is to have some preliminary form of advertisement. This can be done by posters, handbills, or classified advertisements in newspapers. Make sure the date is included, the starting and finishing times, and the venue.

If you have a large and prestigious conference, make sure that you have the best persons organising and chairing it. It could mean 2 people are involved. On the other hand, one person could do both jobs. If one person does both jobs, staging the conference, becomes onerous. In any event, considerable experience is needed, for the organising and the chairing of a big conference. It is highly unlikely, that a neophyte, a beginner, would be able to cope with the many stresses and strains, of a big conference. So the watchword should be experience.

The chairman should be conversant with the rules, regulations and procedure, of the organisation. These are invaluable, as a conference is a type of group discussion, with strong Public Speaking concepts. Social, Business and Industrial organisations, all have conferences, even though their rules, operation, and guiding principles may differ. Perhaps the 2 most important types of conference are (a) The Training Conference, and (b) The Problem-Solving Conference.

A training Conference offers much needed and sometimes much wanted instruction, to new employees, and orientation to older employees in for example modern methods of work procedure, or computerisation. A problem-solving conference looks at the nature of threats, challenges, and difficulties facing the group. It tries to determine the causes and reasons, and decides on strategies and solutions to counter them.

Conferences include meetings of boards of directors, boards of arbitration, and boards of investigation. Another key type of conference, is the committee meeting, as most organisations depend on the work of committees. There is a difference between a conference and public meeting. A public meeting is open to members of the public, while a Conference is usually for members of a particular organisation only. In practice, these distinctions are blurred, and with both, you find specially invited guests. Usually there are speakers at Conferences, explaining points on the policies under review.

Depending on the organisation, an advertisement may be in order. Some seminars and Conferences, might be open to the public. The next step is to decide the subject to be examined. Usually a suitable sub-committee is brought in, to deal with the arrangements. One point should be stressed. Start planning several weeks or even months before the big day.

An agenda is just a formal list of topics, to be handled, including motions and amendments, for the conference. The weekend is a favourite time for conferences. So a sample agenda could look like this

SATURDAY 20^th January

10:30 a.m. - Chairman Mr Z

11:00-13:00 - Chairman Mr Y

Motion on ...

13:00-14:00 - Lunch Break

14:00-16:00 - Chairman Ms X

Topic

16:00-17:00 - Tea Break

17:00-19:30 - Chairman Mr W

Topic

SUNDAY 21^st January

14:00-16:00 - Chairman Ms X

Topic

16:00-17:00 - Tea Break

17:00-19:30 - Chairman Mr A

Open Session

19:30-20:00 - Close Mr Z

If the Conference is big, do have more than one chairman. The job can be tiring and stressful. Make sure that each chairman, or chairperson, is knowledgeable, and is conversant with the topic under discussion. Check your membership, to include capable ladies, as fit people to occupy the chair. It is the job of the main chairman, to open and close the conference, also.

Seminars are often arranged like conferences, especially Training conferences. A seminar could focus on the members of an organisation. Also it can be made to include members of the public. Often an agency might want to dispense information, on say new animal husbanding techniques, crop production, or new chemical products. The usual purpose of a seminar, is to disseminate information of some kind. As many as 3 speakers could take part in a seminar, in addition to the chairman. All the rules for chairmanship apply, and the speakers can use visual aids (strongly advised), and move around the audience if that is their desire. A strong element of teaching is associated with seminars, and knowledge of teaching techniques is desirable. In particular make sure that you have materials for the audience to handle, and bring a few things to show them too.

For technical subjects, a speaker is often desirable, though he or she should only speak according to the rules of the organisation. With both seminars and conferences, it is the audience that benefits most, and enjoys the occasion most, if the matter is planned and carried on properly. This is as it should be.

1. Planning a Dinner Party for 6 people

2. The best party I ever went to

3. My favourite Teacher

4. How to make Bliny

5. How to make Salad

6. How to make Soup

7. Statistics

8. Reading for Studying

9. Pavlov

10. 4 Reasons why I would like to visit England

11. Latin Music

12. American Culture, Good or Bad

13. How to Dance

14. The Beauty of Trees

15. Metals

16. Chemical/Additives in food

17. Air Pollution

18. Farming the Sea

19. Sailing Ships

20. Hand kerchiefs

a) Lermontov

b) Exercise Means Good Health

c) Love And Marriage

“Some are born great, others achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them” (William Shakespeare). As with greatness, so with chairmen. A great deal of those chairmen who are a pain, or are troublesome comes from the fact, that far too many are chosen, because they are rich, prominent, or well connected. Sometimes their meetings are well conducted. At other times, catastrophe and disorder, reign. It must be stressed that Chairmanship is an art, and is best learnt, by reading about it, but more importantly, by practice. It is a practical exercise, but there is a place for reading about it, too. The greatest personal asset a Chairman can have, is knowledge about his job. If you are in the chair for certain organisations, there could be complex rules, and laws even, governing the manner in which a chairman can conduct a meeting. Many business organisations, have intricate rules, particularly in relation to financial dealings. A good chairman will know these matters.

So here are some of the types and styles of Chairmanship to avoid.

He exhibits a lack of knowledge of Parliamentary procedure, and Parliamentary Law. Basically these 2, are just good manners, and they are absent, as the chairman refuses to step in, when rudeness, and profanity intrude. Permitting bad language in a meeting, is an admission of failure. This is a ground for terminating the meeting. Otherwise fights, abuse, and chaos, will reign. These are the hallmarks of the ignorant chairman. Some are timid, but many are belligerent. There is no substitute for knowledge, and belligerence does not work.

This Heavy weight boxing champion is famous for saying “I am the greatest”. Some chairmen are just like this. He is a most important man, and he does not hesitate in letting us know it. Moreover, he is doing everyone a favour, by acting as chairman. He is not really interested in the meeting, and he rushes in at the last moment, and while shaking hands with the speaker, he is talking to someone else!

This kind of chairman has a string of funny stories to tell and he does just that, however long he keeps the speaker waiting. His real aim is to steal the limelight.

He is easy to define. He does not really introduce the speaker. He makes the speech himself.

He has done his homework, his research! He investigates, he thinks, he asks questions. Then on the night of the speech, he displays his vast knowledge. Smugly he sits down, and the poor speaker gets up wondering what he is going to talk about.

Unctuous, oily, and objectionable he often is. He tries to make up for his lack of knowledge of a speaker, by highly coloured flattering remarks. This can destroy the confidence of the speaker, who knows that he cannot possibly live up to these blandishments.

In contrast to the ‘Thief’ or chairman-speaker, the lackadaisical chairman does not take the trouble to get his facts correct. He does not do his ‘homework’ and knowing little about a speaker, he makes up something, and he hopes that his ambiguous remarks will suffice. He fails to create audience confidence in the speaker. The speaker, there fore, has to do it for himself. The chairman is obliged to find out something about the speaker’s career, and background, and BRIEFLY acquaint the audience with the qualities of the man or woman they are about to hear.

He wants to tell the speaker and the audience just what is expected of him. Often his words are based on ignorance, or worse on prejudice. He directs the speaker just as a judge directs a jury, or as a film director directs an actor, or an actress. He is not concerned, with what the speaker has planned. He insists on answers to questions he has in mind. This is most reprehensible, and can demoralise a speaker.

Often with a weak chairman there is a danger to both life, and limb. Chairs can be flying through the air, or foul language flying about the meeting. A Public Speaker is obliged to be courteous and polite, especially to his or her opponents. The chairman must insist on plain good manners, and Parliamentary behaviour. If a chairman lets every thing get out of hand, then there will be a high price to pay, in disorder, hurt feelings, and plain trouble. Weak chairmen are often afraid. They are afraid of upsetting the speaker, or the audience. In particular they are unable to deal with hecklers, or people bent on disrupting the meeting. Often a misunderstanding exists. Many weak chairmen feel that they must be ‘democratic’ and permit the entire range of behaviour that is possible at a meeting. If you have to err, err on the side of firmness, as a good chairman is in some ways a little bit of a tyrant. So at the first sign of bad behaviour, intervene, but firmly.

He is knowledgeable, gracious, pleasant, adaptable and forthcoming. He should help the speaker, and not show him up, or embarrass him. He should be courteous, at all times, and hopefully this quality will carry over to the audience, and the whole meeting. Speakers vary in quality, but if the speaker is wanting, try not to signal boredom, but look interested, and if possibly enthusiastic.

Is the job of being a chairman an imposition, is it onerous? Not necessarily. Have a few chairmanship manuals, and get as much practice as you can. The truth is, that as an exercise in Public Speaking, Chairmanship is extremely enjoyable!

1. Brazil

2. How to improve Radio

3. How to improve TV

4. The Mini-skirt

5. Gymnastics

6. Petrograd

7. Churches in the Kremlin

8. Lenin’s Mausoleum

9. Children - Good or Bad

10. Power Corrupts

11. The Volga

12. Yuri Gagarin

13. The Telephone Good & Bad Aspects

14. Has Science Benefited mankind

15. My Favourite singer is...

16. Is Art for Art’s sake a good thing

17. My favourite actor/Actress is...

18. Ballerinas

19. My favourite writer in English is...

20. The Stalova

a) Russian Fashion

b) Russia’s National Poet - Alexander. S. Pushkin

Some speeches made in public are often like this. They do not know where they are going, as far as the speakers are concerned. Neither do they know how to get there; and if they get there, they have no idea of what to do or what Programme to institute. Very often the speeches will reflect the chaos, and ineptitude, of far too many firms.

Well, proper marketing people cannot speak, or behave like this. The livelihood of a marketing person, depends on how many top quality items or articles, he or she could deliver to the market. Hence in order to do the job properly, a marketing person must be prepared, skilled, and willing to speak in public, to groups, meetings and gatherings, small or large. It is not only meetings that have to be accommodated. Frequently radio, TV, and more recently videos have to be used. Some people are often better at certain aspects of the media, than others. It is wise if you are a marketing person, to have experience of ALL of the types of the media, rather than restrict yourself, to the type or types that you prefer.

As a marketing person, you frequently have to generate interest in both your firm and your products. A good idea, is to read widely. Suppose that you are marketing motor-cars. Well study the history of motor cars, at home and abroad, and the various methods of manufacture. Then there is its social impact on society, and the need to improve safety, and to lessen all kinds of accidents. The number one lesson is that marketing, is related to other disciplines - economics, mathematics and statistics, and Public Speaking.

Don’t forget as well, that there is the phenomenon of market segmentation. Many products, exhibit market segmentation, and a new marketing strategy, could be for the firm, to approach a new segment of a traditional market.

There is a powerful connection between Public Relations and Public Speaking. In a sense a Public Relations (PR) person, is a Public Speaker tidied up, and toned down, to appeal to, or appease an audience. This is just one of the many functions of a PR person. When there is trouble in a firm, or a government ministry, or an agency of some kind, a PR person has to explain the situation, as best as he or she can. Often the facts are damning, and people are upset and irate. The PR person must pour oil on troubled waters. With voice, words, and character a PR person can appease a hostile crowd, or delegation. If you are faced with a mob, hell bent on violence, and blood, the only practical, and in some degree sensible strategy, is to hide, until tempers cool. Yet the PR person, often works hand in hand with the marketing people, particularly if it is a business matter, e.g. launching a new product. Frequently the PR person, advises the advertisers on what words, or phrases, (copy) to use. It might not to be obvious, but many of the skills of Public Speaking, are used by PR, and Marketing people, e.g. Chairmanship, Word Power, the Voice, and Writing. Public Speaking and Public Relations, should be viewed as promoting the positive aspects of a firm, rather than the negative, or defensive aspects of a business, or an agency. Though they are almost never ever killed, many PR people have been assaulted, by people bent on revenge. Life as a PR person can be hectic. Knowing the skills of Public Speakers, can save PR people much worry, and heartbreak. The job is attractive, as PR people are often well paid, with a high percentage of job satisfaction.

Videocassette films, of popular music are now commonplace. Many public speaking attributes should be stressed in any video. Important are the use of the hands and eye contact. Usually the person making the video will not know who is going to buy the videocassette. This is no excuse for that person to mumble, and speak indistinctly, or to look through the window, away from the camera. If you are making a video, focus your eyes on the camera, even if your audience is a lone cameraman. Videos are today used for training people in business, and marketing the products of industrial firms, and services of educational institutions, like universities. It is an excellent field for a progressive Public Speaker.

All in all, the linking of Public Speaking to Marketing, and Public Relations, might seem to be a novel association to some people. On closer examination, however, it can be established, that Public Speaking dovetails happily, with both Marketing, and Public Relations.

1. My favourite colours

2. Aeroplanes

3. Poor People

4. How to ski

5. Snow

6. How to Bake a Cake

7. How to Cook a chicken

8. How to swim

9. How to play the Piano

10. Destroy all Nuclear weapons!

11. Reform

12. Bananas

13. Pirogue

14. The Americas

15. Save the Whale

16. Fur Coats

17. What is Ecology

18. Heart Transplants

20. The Heart

a) How I would cure the Economic Ills of the CIS

b) What’s good and bad about students

c) The cuisine of the CIS

Marketing is often viewed as a distinct, but necessary part of a firm’s activities. It is also a managerial function, and hence, many of the qualities and obligations of managerial functions, also apply.

Marketing is a requirement of organisations, which manufacture items, but service industries often carry people, who act as Marketing managers. Some people feel the term is synonymous with Sales. Of course, Marketing includes Sales, but it is much more than Sales. You are obliged to look at the whole product, the entire process of producing it, in order to make and deliver to the market, a better, and an improved product. For these tasks, a Marketing manager is required. It is often advisable, if such a person is skilled in Speechcraft.

Business and Marketing, are about Communication. Marketing people and Marketing Managers, are as a group, often very good at Public Speaking and Communication. Some are exceptionally good. Hence numerous opportunities, will normally arise, for a good Marketing manager. So what are these occasions, and where can they be found?

It seems strange, that the marketing function of an industry will be concerned with training and education. As a marketing manager you will ignore these things at your peril. The skills of a Marketing manager are needed by factories, and whole industries. Marketing people have to teach groups, the method or methods of doing some thing. They also have to rely, sometimes heavily, on Public Speaking skills, to get their messages across. Hence Public Speaking And communication, are vital areas in the survival of a business. Sometimes there is an informational conference, where members pool their knowledge, and experience, in order to improve the thinking, and work, of each participant. A Marketing manager should know of this device, and use it to ameliorate his or her products.

A short cut to the solution of many an organisation's problems is the setting up a committee. The chairman and committee members, are selected for their specialist qualifications. They meet over a period, and try and solve the matter. A variety of this is the Steering Committee, which is often invoked, for new initiatives. The steering committee, can be elected or appointed. Their job is to put into effect, an initiative or effort, usually a new one.

This is the American term. When a group is unusually large, it is sometimes broken up into ‘Buzz’ sessions, of no more than 6 people.

Each ‘Buzz’ session convenes and discusses a phase of the problem, for a fairly short time. In these abbreviated meetings, chairmanship and public speaking skills, are needed. Usually the main chairman, will give the background to the topic, to the whole group. The groups then go to various parts of the room, with one member designated as leader. When the allotted time has elapsed, each group leader reports briefly on his group’s recommendations. The main Chairman points out similarities, differences, and other relationships among the groups. Finally he invites the entire meeting, to discuss the problem, and eventually to make its decision. In England the term used is ‘workshops’ which are similar to ‘Buzz’ sessions. Workshops can be both small and large, and frequently there is an appointed leader, who will chair each sub-group.

In an industry, there must first be production. So a production manager is a person of major importance. Many firms, however, are faced with challenges, like what to produce? Or in what quantities should they produce? When these questions are being debated, it is wise to include the Marketing Manager in the discussions. He knows intimately what the market prefers. He can often predict fairly accurately, how the market will change, and when it will change. His job, is, therefore, to persuade his managerial colleagues, as regards his views and beliefs. He must therefore, use his voice, visual aids, logic and experience, to bring the team to sensible decisions. He should as well, include some, if not all of his management colleagues in his own departmental meetings. Information should be a 2 way process. So too should knowledge. Marketing people must have knowledge or disaster can ensue.

Please do not believe that it is only a large organisation, which can afford marketing people. In a small or even a one-man business, the managerial functions are merged, or should be merged, with the marketing ones. If the business grows, then deep consideration should be given, to the setting up of a special marketing department, under a specialist Marketing manager.

Any description of Management Public Speaking, is bound to include some examination of the role of Marketing, and Marketing people, in the organisation. People have to be persuaded. Goods have to be sold, and planning and policy meetings have to be held. It is my contention that Public Speaking and in particular Chairmanship skills, will markedly increase, the effectiveness of the Marketing manager.

1. St Valentine’s Day

2. TV Advertising

3. The Car

4. Women are the Wealth of Russia

5. Vodka

6. Kampot

7. Smoking and Tobacco

8. The Foreign country I like

9. Life in a country Dacha

10. Fishing

11. Photography

12. Russian Mountains

13. Valentina Tereshkova

14. Opera Singers

15. How to make Salads

16. Why I want to visit the USA

16. Rock and Roll
17. Curing Economic ills

19 Build more Stations on the Metro

(a) Crime in Russia. How to stop it.

(b) A journey across Russia. From East to West or North to South.

It is Priceless; and no doubt a major skill, if not the major skill, to be learnt from Public Speaking. It is to think on your feet. If you do not, or if you cannot, then you will only mouth nonsense syllables, or do, what is probably worse, just freeze. There are many occasions in life, where the skill of Public Speaking, is required. You might have to appear before an academic Board, to convince them, of the truth of some contention that you have researched, and discovered. You might have to give evidence of some sort - to a judge, a tribunal, or a group of some kind, and the outcome could depend on how skilfully you speak. Managers will not find these occasions strange. They frequently have to think on their feet, to meet challenges and crises, large and small, in their work. Sometimes, their jobs literally depend on how well they understand the principles of Public Speaking, and on how well they can apply them. A major skill. therefore, is to think on your feet.

Perhaps the second skill that you can learn from Public Speaking, is Diction. Diction is the way in which we speak words. We must speak the language, by uttering sounds correctly, in the sequence of words, and sentences, and with the stresses usually on syllables, as required by the language, and its grammar. Another word for this, is pronunciation. The term ‘Dialect’ might worry some people. There are occasions where dialect might be appropriate, but to be safe, you should use most, if not all of the time, Standard English.

England, which is the home of "Standard English", has about 10 different dialects and numerous accents, but Standard English is basically the dialect of most of London, the Royal Family, and the BBC (The British Broadcasting Corporation). It is a complex matter; - Dialect, Standard English, Accents, and Colloquialism, but let this suffice, as Diction is so important.

Writing to communicate is an important skill to be gleaned from Public Speaking. The skills that you will learn, where writing is concerned, are closely related to those of an effective journalist. Just one of these might be writing a script, for a radio, or TV interview, or broadcast. If your syntax, grammar, and language lack style, or are other wise inept, going on radio and TV in particular, can be a form of professional suicide. You have to choose words carefully, and do spell, and punctuate correctly. Some speeches written by managers, have to be read and spoken by someone else e.g. a PR person. Careless writing, could redound with disastrous consequences. Above all, avoid jargon, feebleness, affectations, advertiser’s words, and ‘Journalese’. Try communicate effectively at all costs. It means that your writing and language, should suit the occasion.

If you have extended experience in Public Speaking, one area of your deportment, that could improve, is your conversation and social skills. You have to relate to other people, for instance in being in audiences, and possibly chairing a meeting. You will also learn how to deliver a speech properly, and effectively. Practice in Public Speaking should also help, in improving oral communication, and thus you should be able to converse freely, with all kinds of people, and ultimately make your social life more enjoyable. So never underestimate, the social value of speech or Public Speaking.

Public Speaking and good oral communication, can encourage a person to participate, in civic and community matters and organise things. The Public Speaker can penetrate, to positions where he or she, can serve the community at large. Many have moved on, by talking to people, and groups, to championing causes. They often penetrate to high office, where they shape public opinion, and in other ways, contribute to national welfare. The potential for positive results and goodness from Public Speaking, should always be realised. Though some speakers who were politicians, were social disasters, on the whole they would be classed as demagogues, and not as Public Speakers. A high moral tone is implied, by the term ‘Public Speaking’.

Perhaps the chief personal quality you need to become a good Public Speaker is COURAGE. Some people make speeches with sureness, skill, and aplomb. More often than not, they did not begin their speaking careers that way. Some would have said nothing in their first few speeches. The reason is that they had to deal with stage fright - a mixture of fear, nervousness and inexperience. It ranges, from mere timidity, to severe dread of addressing an audience. In daily life, people can speak with great freedom, and lack of self-consciousness, but to get up and face a group, some people are prone to suffer the apprehension, known as stage fright. Courage, and the courage to have repeated practice, will overcome your shortcomings as a speaker.

Allied to courage, you must lack or avoid nervousness in Public Speaking. If you are nervous, the changes are, that you will be tense to such a degree, that you will say nothing, or that you will be incoherent. Nervousness must be controlled, overcome, and if you do it, the chances are, that you will speak well in public. A little bit of nervousness can actually help some speakers, as it gets the adrenaline flowing, but more often than not, it inhibits progress, and smooth speaking.

You need as well, the urge to communicate, and pleasure in talking. Talking is not only a necessity, but also a pleasure. Converse with friends, on a variety of topics, and put this new knowledge, to use, in interviews, meetings, and even in conferences. Speaking is not only pleasant but also purposeful. Some ideas are too important, not to be communicated. Having the life skills to communicate, would develop self-confidence, and ameliorate your power in Public Speaking.

In practice, it will be found that a skill to be learnt from, will also be a skill to learn, for Public Speaking. It is a matter of degree, as to whether a particular skill, say lack of nervousness, or thinking on your feet, belongs in one category, or the other. It must be stressed that Public speaking, is indeed, a learning process and it is not until you attempt it, that you know how much you have to learn. Many more people should attempt it, as it can be quite enjoyable!

1. Card Games

2. Vitamins

3. Geology: what it can give us

4. War

5. The Circus

6. Great Ballerinas

7. A Great Athletes

8. Mozart

9. Beethoven

10. The US Presidency

11. The Bolshoi Ballet

12. TV News

13. Red Square

14. Matrouchka Dolls

15. Chess

16. Decorative Chess Sets

17. Wines of the World

18. Make love not War

19. Houses

20. A visit to a Museum

a) My Home Town

b) Russian Poetry

Roles are the province it seems of actors, actresses, and film stars, and those people whose existence in this world, can be described by the phrase, larger than life! So is Public Speaking larger than life all time? Of course not! There are many bread-and butter issues that are addressed by Public Speakers and several mundane applications for the art of Public Speaking. On the other hand there are the special, the grand, the important occasions, when people will call for, or need to hear a speech. So one important role for Public Speaking, is for it to act as a kind of unifying force, to cement positively, the emotions, the beliefs and the expectations of audiences. These are often the big, the grand occasions, and the role of a Public speech in rallying the nation, was perhaps best seen in 1940 with Winston Churchill’s memorable orations when the Nazis threatened to overrun Britain.

Another major role for Public Speaking concerns education. As a form of language education, Public Speaking can have an unrivalled impact. Yet it is absent from many secondary school, college, and university courses. Hence when some students have to write and defend theses, for post-graduate degrees, they can only present a limp and ineffectual effort, and an otherwise excellent programme, or dissertation, will lack the edge, the argument, and power, that it deserves. So to raise standards and give proper quality to education, serious thought should be given to enlarging the role of Public Speaking, and Public Speaking training in education. In North American universities you can find courses in Rhetoric. In Classical times “rhaetors” went around the country, to individuals and groups, to teach “rhetoric”. So in formal education, the idea is ancient, and it must be revived today, with proper effect. We must reflect on the fact that an educated man in the days of Classical antiquity was expected to have more than a nodding acquaintance with rhetoric. The modern form of this is Public Speaking. In Athens in 510 BC, public service became a duty of all citizens. Skill in oratory was thus a necessity. Hence the teachers of speech developed rhetoric, which comprised the theory and practice of eloquence; that is, speech designed to influence the judgement and feelings of men. An additional role for Public Speaking is found in the lecturing and teaching found in all the world’s universities, institutes, colleges and schools. A lecturer, professor or teacher who is aware of Public Speaking principles, would be doing education a service.

The list is long. Some of the worlds greatest speakers were active in politics and public affairs: Nelson Mandela, Kenneth Kuanda, Abraham Lincoln, Sir Winston Churchill, Edmund Burke, Cicero and Demosthenes are just a few. So an important fact, is, that Public Speaking is an essential ingredient, in government and affairs of state. Most students of history, can identify this role of Public Speaking. Some have been tragic, but many more lived lives, with words and deeds, that were ornaments and decorations of human existence.

The study and practice of Public Speaking has benefited the personalities of people who were timid, shy, or afflicted with some defect of personality. No miracle is involved. You have to study the subject and its subject-matter deeply, intensely! The subject is often studied at University level. Once you have studied the subject-matter, then practice is next. It must be stressed that Public Speaking is a practical skill, and that practice irons out any defects in your speech and delivery, assuming of course, that these shortcoming can be solved. Sometimes they cannot be eradicated. Most times with skilled help, they can be lessened.

One role of Public Speaking, is to promote the art of listening. It is not only the audience, which has to listen, it is the speaker too, who has to listen. He or she has to be aware of those moments when he has ‘lost’ his listeners and when boredom sets in. As a general rule we should all talk less and listen more. Some speeches will benefit, if they were reduced by as much as 50%. Usually the shorter the speech the better the listening value for the audience. In order to promote good listening, the average and the not so average speaker, should NEVER RUN OVERTIME. This is one of the best principles of Public Speaking. Of course the usual role of listening, is the pleasure and excitement of a crowd, or an audience, when a master speaker, an orator of the highest class is on show. As in some classical concerts, there is a hush as he or she is about to speak. The audience knows that a master speaker is about to perform.

Actual role-play can penetrate to Public Speaking exercises. In some conferences in the USA and else where, some intractable problems are solved in training conferences by actual role-playing. The participants are told what roles they are to play, and are given several minutes to plan the progress of the plot. They then perform for about 5 or 7 minutes. Because role-playing is spontaneous and is given to those taking part to understand to some degree, the point of view of the person they portray. There is, as well, the role of Public Speaking as a method of solving a variety of problems.

Hence it seems as if the role of Public Speaking can be enlarged in its present state, and for entirely new initiatives. We should however stress, its civic and educative applications, as well as the personal benefits, it has brought to some people.

1. Physics

2. Heredity

3. Dogs

4. TV Dramas

5. A. Chekhov

6. Boris Pasternak

7. My neighbours

8. Africa

9. Sunshine and the Sea

10. Caribbean Music - Bob Marley etc.

11. Jazz

12. Modern Dance

14. Fireworks

15. Why I want to visit London

16. Divorce

17. The Ball-point Pen (stylo)

18. Oranges

19. Caviar

20. Spring

a) Russian Writing

b) Russian Films

c) The Cuisine of the CIS

Can a speaker have a flow of eloquence, to such a degree, that he or she does not need notes?

Of course, this should be the aim. Nevertheless, no speaker should take risks, so silly chances, when speaking in public. The speak without notes, in public, is to take a chance, and taking that chance, could mean failure in a speech. In a way it all depends on the occasion, the meeting, as to weather notes can be made. If, for example, you are at a meeting, and you have to make an impromptu speech, you might have half a minute to two minutes, preparation time. If the time is as short as this, then any notes that you make will probably be sketchy. You should, however, make notes all the time. Sometimes at a meeting, the executives, the managers, and the senior people have priority, and will together speak for three-quarter of time allotted for speeches and reports. One strategy is to make in note form, a summary of the previous speeches. Armed with such data you can then agree with some speakers and disagree with others. Your own observations can also be included in this summary type of speech. It is an excellent strategy to eliminate those aspects of speeches witch seem to be extremist. You can also sensibly enlarge, those aspects, which seem positive and enlightened from the speeches at the meeting.

In speech craft and speech training, the length of a prepared speech is about 8 to 12 minutes. Even in training, a speaker should prepare and use notes. These could be excellent rehearsals for longer speeches of an hour, two hours or three hours. Usually only politicians perform, for a longer then an hour. The guiding principles of making a speech remain the same.

So how should we proceed? On occasion the speaker should write his or her speech, if it is of moderate length. This could give an accurate timing of the length of the speech. After this the speaker should put the salient, points in note form. Notes should then be assembled and at the meeting, the speaker speaks, maintaining eye contact and punctuating his speech, with the correct hand and voice justice.

Reading a speech, destroys eye contact. Eye contact is one of the pre requisites for a good speech. Hence giving a presentation from notes, is usually more effective than reading a speech. Read a speech only if you are speaking about a controversial subject or if you have a tight inflexible time limit. You might be a Public Relations executive, and you don’t want to be misquoted, or say any thing, that could later be used against you. In other situations, even if you must give written paper to the press, or to the conference organiser, it is still better to talk from an outline.

Usually a speaker only reads a speech only when he has been asked to lecture, or when the speech is to be reported, and it must be accurate. Reading a speech is difficult, and you should avoid it if you can. Moreover, never try to read a speech, when there is no need or necessity to do so.

1. Use short sentences with simple words. Write your speech in oral style, not in written style.
2. Triple space your text, so that you can find your place easy.
3. Type the text only half way down the page, so you don’t bob your head up and down as you look from the audience to the text and back again.
4. Mark the text with colour pen to indicate phrasing, speed, volume and places to pause for breath.

Carry the text to the podium, in a thin box so that the audience is not dismayed the thick sheaf of papers that results from triple spacing and using only half of the page. As you read, vary the Pitch, volume, and speed, so that you sound, as if you are thinking as you speak.

How should the speaker remember and deliver his or her speech? There are these strategies.

1. Write it out fully and read it. This is not advised.
2. Write it out fully and memorise it. This also is not recommended, unless you have the memory of a top actor but even they might find memorising a speech, difficult or impossible.
3. Write it out fully and refer to it. This can never be effective. If you try to read the speech from type written or hand written pages it is most difficult. You will probably loose your place, and make a bad speech.
4. Write out notes and refer to them. If the notes are legible and understandable to the speaker, this strategy works quite well.
5. Write out the speech and memorise the headings. This is probably the best policy. Use headings to convey the step being spoken, and the subject matter being dealt with. There are no real alternatives to notes. These can guarantee a good and excellent speech!

1. The Russian Recipes.
2. The Russian Music.
3. Radio Stations.
4. In / Keen place in Moscow.
5. Russian Fashion.
6. Russian Traditional Costumes.
7. The Ballet.
8. Clothes can tell Character.
9. Great athletes I have seen.
10. The Russian Theatre.
11. Ice-Skaters.
12. Ice Figure Dancing.
13. Football and Footballers.
14. Major Libraries in Moscow.
15. Books I like.
16. Russian Sweets.
17. Russian Cakes.
18. Russian Magazines.
19. Foreign Language Publication.
20. Classical music.
21. The Ukraine.
22. Siberia.
23. Television game shows.

A Debate is a verbal contest, between two people or two teams of people. One of the most famous debates in recent years, was for the presidency of the USA, between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy, in 1960. John Kennedy, was a judge to be a winner, of these TV debates. Kennedy had a smart sober-suited, tide, appearance. Richard Nixon on the other hand, was unshaven and had an untidy shifty-eyed appearance. People said, that this difference between the two candidates, meant that Nixon lost the debate and ultimately the election. It shows another aspect of Public Speaking. The appearance of the speaker is of vital importance, especially if you are to make a speech to persuade. Debates are educative and are held for the pleasure of those taking part, rather than for the purpose of propagating theories and ideas.

The moot is the issue or subject or question to be debated. Subjects for a debate should always be presented in the form of a motion, and care must be taken, in drafting it, to ensure absolute clarity e.g. ‘That capital punishment should be reintroduced’ or ‘That reform politics have succeeded’. It is easier to speak for or against a positive motion then a negative one. Almost any thing can be made the subject of a debate, but the authorities caution against religious topics, as these can inspire problems and bitter, and enduring controversy.

In Britain, one team is called the Proposition and the other team is called the Opposition. In America, they are called the Affirmative and the Negative respectively. The Leader of the Proposition, or the Affirmative, is called the Opener, and he or she speaks in favour of the motion. The Leader of the opposition, or the Negative speaks against the motion. This speaker is also known as the Opposer. They can also be, supporting speakers on both sides. In practice, two supporting speakers on each side, are enough to have a good, and excellent debate!

Rules can differ, if a debate is sponsored by the debating society. There are certain areas, however, which must be agreed, as the procedure and the holding of the debate are concerned.

1. The subject for a debate, must be worded in the form of a motion.
2. The Opener and the Opposer may each speak for a specific time, say 10 or 15 minutes.
3. Supporting speakers must not number more than 2 on each sides, and they must not speak for more then 5 minutes.
4. The debate will be throne open for thirty minutes for contributions from the floor. Any member of the audience who wishes, can speak no more then 3 minutes. He or she can only speak once.
5. Timing will be strictly observed.
6. All speakers, must address the chair.
7. The chairman’s ruling is final.

A Symposium, is a group of prepared short speeches delivered by experts, on various aspects of a subject, usually in a prearranged order. How many people should sit with the chairman at the top-table? If just thirty minutes is available for each speaker, then three speakers can be accommodated. If only 20 minutes are allotted to each speaker then 4 speakers can participate. For a symposium the meeting should always be continuos of the time, as the main speakers, can easily run overtime.

Each speaker may discuss the whole question from his or her view point, or he or she may talk only on a particular phase such as the topic history, its causes, or possible solutions. The objective is to increase audience understanding, by presenting different, and even conflicting points of view.

The chairman, at the end of the speeches, can then have a period of questions and comments, from the audience. This can be followed by answers, by the speakers, to questions from the listeners. All questions must go through the chairman.

The role of the chairman or moderator, is to state the purpose of the meeting, and explain the nature of the topic. The chairman also introduces the speakers, and brevity, should be the sole of each introduction. The chairman also summarises positions taken, by various speakers and moderates tempers, when the discussion becomes heated. After directing questions put to the speakers from the audience, the chairman closes the meeting by thanking the experts, and the audience for the contribution.

There are other public discussion arrangements which are called panel discussions, or to which people might refer as the panel. Panel discussions are informal types of discussions. The panel members, are selected for their knowledge, experience, and sentiments. Although the number of Panellists is determined by the time allotted for discussions, the complexity of the problem, and the availability of the experts. The ideal number is about 4 people.

The arrangement of the panel discussion, is to have the panellist sit facing the audience, in an approximate semi-circle, with the chairman in the centre, or to one side. Most of the time, panellists talk to each other rather then make individual speeches. The members, by asking questions and expressing opinions maintain an interesting discussion, and present a well-rounded view of the subject. One of the widest uses of panel discussion, is to help poorly informed audiences, to understand a particular problem. The notions are often carried by radio and some times by TV. Managers should note, and practice all of the skills necessary, for debates, panel discussions, and the symposium!

1. A visit to the dentist.
2. London that lovely city.
3. Choosing a career or a profession.
4. Keeping pets.
5. Buying flowers.
6. Buying Presents.
7. My hobbies.
8. The perfect room.
9. The perfect house.
10. Ghosts
11. Superstitions
12. Horror movies.
13. Gold
14. Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
15. Why I believe?
16. Stars of MGU past and present.
17. Russian Pies.
18. Russian artists.
19. Our greatest ballerina is…
20. Modern dance
21. My favourite colour is
22. The colour of revolution.
23. CD players
24. Alligators.
25. The human eye.
26. The metal silver

Radio is about 100 years old and TV is about a little more then 60 years old. Yet, many ps, fail to face the challenges, of both radio and TV, unless there is a crisis of some sort, and they have to face the microphones, or the cameras. Even if they think that the occurrence is remote, managers at all levels should find out, about recording studios, for both radio and TV. That should hold no terrors for trained and skilled speakers. With reporters, however the matter can , be markedly, tremendously, different. Yet the difficulties can be overcome. Radio and TV journalism, breed a different type of journalist sometimes. Managers should get to know Radio and TV people, as they have strength and weaknesses. Generally, they can make a manager or a speaker look good, or if they are upset, they can make the speaker look extremely bad.

All speakers, and people like managers, and executives, should make the effort, to understand the nature, and basic requirement of broadcasting. When the speaker talks on radio or TV, nearly all of his listeners, form an invisible audience. Perhaps in the studio, there can be an audience of a few people, but especially on radio, you have only one or 2 studio engineers, for company, at a radio station.

The audience consists of tuned in listeners, and this can be in thousands, hundreds of thousands, or as is frequently the case, in countries with large populations, in millions. The size of the unseen audience, of ten causes good speakers, to stutter, stumble or freeze, and the listeners are usually in their homes, in ones, twos, threes, and fours, and the hearers are separated in space, as well. This difference in the composition of the audience, for some speakers, taker some time to get used to. Moreover, group psychology does not work. There is no catching and sharing, of common enthusiasm, from other members, of a large group. There are sometimes different reactions, as regards the studio listeners, and the widespread, isolated, listeners, at home. The speaker should appeal, to the individual listener, if he does this. Successfully, he or she might sway millions of people.

In broadcasting, the speaker cannot adjust, or vary his or her message, or presentation, for his or her audience, as he or she, has no way of seeing, hearing, and sensing, the responses of the listeners. Speakers hope, that the radio or TV audiences, are responding favourably. Working with microphones, means that the volume, timing, and non-speech sounds, are limited. Microphones mean also, that speakers are immobilised in one position.

Some Radio and TV stations, have what they call in-depth, topical, programmes.

Generally, a scandal of some Rind exists, and the radio or TV station wants to expose it. Enter the radio or TV reporter. They are often journalists, ‘anchor-men’ or ‘anchor-women’ who conduct.

The session. Often the questioning, is more like a lawyer’s cross - examination, in a murder trial, and the victim, will terminate the interview, walk off, or dissolve into tears. With some radio and TV reporters, the questioning, can be brutal. This hostile questioning, is an art form, with some reporters. A manager must come to terms with it. Careful preparation is needed. The person being questioned or interviewed, must prepare his or her presentation, and anticipate the likely questions, that will come from reporters.

In handling questions from radio and TV reporters, speakers should welcome them, and treat the questions, as opportunities to give more detailed information, than they had time to give, in their presentation. Prepare for the reporters questions, by listing every fact, or opinion, you can think of, that challenges your position. During your presentation, tell the audience, how you will handle questions. Sometimes the radio or TV station, has a small audience, for speakers. Don’t exaggerate your claims, so that you won’t have to back down, at Question time. Some radio or TV stations, have a phone-in session. Questions are posed, to the speaker, or speakers, who will answer the question. You can also find a Chairman, or a moderator in charge, and carrying out the usual functions.

If a question is hostile or biased, rephrase it, before you answer it: “You’re asking whether…” or suggest an alternative “I think that there are problems, with both the positions you describe. It seems to me, that there is a third position, which is better…” If you don’t know the answer to a question, say so. An alternative is, to ask if anyone in any audience you may have, if he or she knows. If an expert is in the audience, refer the question to him or her.

Speakers have to be alert, for any radio or TV appearance. Take a script, and all necessary papers, for a radio interview. For TV you can try and find some way, of concealing your papers. The difference between radio and TV, is that on TV, the audience can see the speaker. Radio and TV reporters are there to facilitate matters, but often this is the last thing on their minds; they have other aims and objectives.

1. Foreign Language Publications.
2. Cats.
3. Road Safety.
4. Long Hair.
5. Foreign Fruits.
6. Women’s magazines - Cosmo etc.
7. Summer Activities.
8. Prison.
9. My first Dance.
10. My early life.
11. Children’s Games.
12. Art Galleries.
13. Glass.
14. The shapes of bottles.
15. France.
16. University Education.
17. Roadside markets.
18. Russian Lakes.
19. Grand Opera.
20. Tennis.
21. This better to have loved and lost, than to win and be forever bossed.
22. Should we abolish all arranged marriages.
23. All women should be married and no man.

It corresponds to a duet - 2 singers blending their voices, to produce a tuneful, mellifluous, melodic sound. This is as it should be, when we make, or give a speech. There is the speaker, and his or her listeners. Depending of course where they are, and what is being said, the speech and the responses to it, can be heard. In some church audiences, or congregations, in prayer, or in the preaching of the sermon, you hear words like ‘Amen’, or phases like ‘that’s right’ or “tell it like it is”. In Black American, and other cultures, there are songs which feature ‘Call and Response.’ Well, a good speech should be like this.

Writers of letters have audiences too. In many cases the audience is just one person, or a few persons. The writer like the speaker, should analyse the audience, to which the message is being addressed.

Writers, like speakers, must be conscious of their audiences, and adapt their presentations, to fit the requirements, the interests, and concerns, of their audiences. In audience analysis, the first step is to decide who your audience is. Some authorities, identify 3 kinds of audience.

The people in the primary audience, are mainly responsible for making decisions.

This audience is affected, by the decision or action.

This audience, routes the message, or messages, to other audiences.

The most important tools in audience analysis, are common sense, and empathy. Empathy is the ability to put oneself, in another’s shoes, to feel with that person. Once you know what your audience finds important, you can then organise your information, in a way that seems natural, and appealing to your audience. With these in mind, your audience is open to persuasive appeals, from you, the speaker.

If you know your audience well, and if you use words well, much of your audience adaptation, will be unconscious. If you don’t know your audience, or if the message is very important, take time to analyse your audience formally, and to revise your draft, with your analysis in mind. Do remember, that a reader can comprise the audience, as well as a gathering of hundreds of people.

Moreover, it is easy to overestimate the knowledge, which an audience has. Make a special effort to be clear. Make sure to use examples, explain concepts, and define terms. Prepare visual aids, and use them at every opportunity. There are several kinds of visual aids, and you should always choose, those which are easy to follow, suitable, and effective. If you bring to the audience, detailed and complicated tables, and charts, that require considerable time to digest, the chances are, that they will be unsuitable, for the audience. Avoid also charts, graphs, and diagrams, which are too technical, or complex, for anyone but a specialist to grasp.

A Public speech, is usually heard only once, by the listeners. It means that all available care, must be taken, for it to succeed, when it is presented. Hence, the speech should be suited to the audience, in choice of subject, treatment, and delivery. Despite the difficulties, a speaker should attempt the talk of audience analysis. If you prepare a speech without knowledge of your audience, then you will succeed only by chance. Analysing the audience, aims at eliminating these chances. You should find out, what you the speaker and your listeners have in common, according to background, experience, ideas, hopes and loyalties. The intelligent speaker, will reinforce and enlarge, the common ground. If he or she has new ideas, the common ground, can phone to be a fruitful soil, for their growth, and flowering.

Remember please, that the audience is made up of individual hearers, who usually have a reason for listening to the speaker. Each individual tends to react, both mentally and emotionally, to what he or she hears, and each listener has an effect upon the response of others. The listening situation, may this create a group response. Unless the tendency is disturbed, listeners tend to think a long with the speaker. Speakers should do their homework, and not depend on the general characteristics of audiences. Ideally, they should seek as much information as possible, about the specific audiences, they plan to address. Even if the speakers cannot learn many facts in advance, the efforts to do so must be made. The speakers can then concentrate, on their listeners, and thus make their speeches more positive and communicative. One rule for Public Speaking is, that the more you find out and research, the better your speech will be.

1. Journalist - Good or Bad.
2. Women TV Reporters.
3. The attractions of Big Cities.
4. Russian idioms.
5. Great men and women.
6. Famous Women.
7. English Poetry.
8. Spring.
9. Cows.
10. Famous explorers.
11. Lomonosov.
12. Pushkin.
13. Tolstoy.
14. Television (Use and History).
15. The Value of Foreign Travel.
16. An Englishman’s castle is his home.
17. Guitar Music.
18. Mama’s Home Cooking.
19. Cosmetic Preparations Used by Russian Women.
20. My Dacha.
21. Modern Art.
22. Holidays in Russia.

Perhaps interviews are mini-public speaking occurrences, but nearly everyone has an important interview sometime, in his or her life. The interview has several variations, and some firms have managers, and Public Relations (PR) people, who are specialists at handling interviews. So the manager can find himself in s radio station, or a TV station, confronting an interviewer, who will quiz him, about some aspect of his firm, or who will try to get him to utter words, which will describe some issue of public interest or public concern. In some instances, the managers are on the defensive, but on occasion the managers can be positive. An interview is a conversation with a purpose, or a planned discussion between 2 people. The main purposes of interviews are to inform, and to persuade, and the 2 main types, are the fact-finding, and the job-seeking interview. Back at the office, the manager can find himself, conducting a job-seeking interview.

It is best, that a person facing a job interview, should view it, as a process, as there are several prior steps, that normally lead up to a job interview. The person who gets hired, is the one who knows most about how to get hired. There are certain Public Speaking aspects about employment, and in interviews; and hiring stress them. Many people, not only switch employers, but they also switch fields, at least once in their lives. If you know how to get a positive response at every stage, and you go about the job search systematically, you can use those steps, not only to find your first full-time job, but also to move on, or up, later in life. There are also styles of interview, and knowledge of these, can give you a level of preparedness, far above the average candidate, for a position or job.

The American term is the Resume, while the British one is the CV – an abbreviation for Curriculum Vitae. This means a short biography, including work experience, education and other matters. Sometimes small firms, or individuals, can be found, who specialise in writing resumes. The resume or CV, should be typed, and if possible, fill just one page. After getting their CVs, or resumes, most applicants for jobs, will write their job application letter. Job application letters, are in some places, really an art form.

One important step, is that before the interview, the applicant should do as much research as possible, on himself, or herself. People must know who they are, and what they really want to do. This helps you to answer the interviewer’s questions, as regards what you want to do. For some jobs, you have to be prepared to speak for 3 hours, about yourself and your interests.

Answers to the interviewer’s questions, should be prepared in advance. Some of the most important areas are:

1. What about yourself do you want the interviewer to know.
2. What disadvantages or weaknesses do you need to minimise.
3. What do you need to know about the job and the organisation, to decide whether you want this job, if it is offered to you.

For the ladies, female executives DO NOT wear miniskirts, or mini-dresses. The answer, of course, is the Business-Suit. This exists for both men and women. Women should wear a skirted suit. Looking good is less important than looking business like! Moreover, don’t look as if you are doing to a party, or a dance!

If current fashions are sexy, it is probably wiser, to dress conservatively, unless, of course, you are going for a job in the Fashion industry. Choose comfortable shoes, as you may have to walk on interview. Make sure your shoes shined, and have a conservative haircut. Jewellery and make-up should be understated. Personal hygiene and tidiness must be impeccable.

Certain things should be taken to the job interview. Bring:

1. Extra copies of your resume
2. Something to write on and something to write with.
3. Copies of your work – theses, Newspaper articles, photos etc.
4. Names, addresses and telephone numbers, if you didn’t put them into your resume or CV.
5. Buy a briefcase to hold all these documents.

Be energetic, perceptive, interested, intelligent and articulate. Be your best self at the interview. As interviews can make you feel vulnerable and defensive, you need to review your accomplishments – the tings you are especially proud of having done. Don’t smoke, even if you are invited to do so.

Every interview has an Opening, Body and Close. The outcome of the interview is determined in the first 4 minutes. Hence first impressions matter.

Be careful in what you wear, and your posture should always be modest. Your handshake, and what you say, are important as well.

These deliberately put an interviewee under stress. The interviewer can blow smoke in an applicants face, or suggest a chair be taken where light is in the interviewees eyes.

Some television interviews are forms of stress interviews and many of the points made about job interviews, apply with equal force to television interviews. In particular, dress and deportment matter. Generally, prior planning, rehearsals if convenient, and care in what you say, will repay the time spent on them with positive result!

1. My favourite Foreign Country
2. Living in a country dacha
3. Fishing
4. Russian mountains
5. Valentina Tereshkova
6. A great singer
7. Peanuts
8. Planning a dinner party for 6
9. The best party I ever went to
10. How to make salads
11. 4 reasons why I want to visit the USA
12. Rock ‘N’ Roll
13. Curing Russia's Economic ills
14. Russian costumes
15. Moscow’s Metro
16. Russia’s poet
17. The Olympics
18. Vitamins
19. Chemistry
20. Geology
21. War
22. The circus
23. Great ballerinas
24. A great athlete

“Communication is the act or fact of communicating; Transmission; The imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing or signs; That which is communicated or imparted; a document or message, imparting views or information; passage, opportunity of passage, or a means of passage, between places” (The New Webster’s Dictionary 1989)

There are several items, which qualify as communication. One is a letter. The writing of letters is another, and oral communication, or speaking, is a third. From the Webster’s definition it can be seen that communication is fairly ubiquitous. Perhaps oral communication, conversation, and public speaking, have the greatest level of interest.

The reasons for people who want to improve their own oral communication, are economic and personal. Most people earn their living by working for someone else. They must talk well enough, to get a job, or position, and talk to fulfil many of the required duties. Speech is important, not only for those who work only with others in the firm, but also those who work in direct contact, with the public. Business requires, that its members, have the ability to get along with all associates. It is a skill that is rated highly by employers and it is based upon the ability to speak well, to others. Speaking well, means talking co-operatively, rather than antagonistically. In business it pays to be friendly, considerate.

In many occupations, if you want to advance, you must have the best possible speaking skills. A man’s speech shows his willingness to work, makes his ideas and suggestions known, and helps to reveal his ability, and judgement. Managers at all levels, or directors, speak to various groups of employees. When the speaking is well and effectively done, the speaker becomes more valuable to the organisation. In addition, careers in ministry, law, diplomatic service, television and broadcasting, and the stage, require a facility with the spoken word. Generally, a person who accomplishes something of worth, in any field, is expected to be articulate, and fluent, before an audience. Leadership is also a prize, for those who want to develop their talents at speaking. A leader is a person who can influence the minds, feelings, and actions, of other people.

One advantage of improving oral communication, is being able to converse freely, with all kinds of people. Being at ease with others, makes social life fore enjoyable. A skilled conversationalist attracts friends, and acquaintances. Love, marriage, and family relationships are rooted in the ability to communicate. Many people penetrate to high political office, on the basis of their skill in oral communication. Others serve in community affairs, where they have to be conversant, with the principles of communication.

Most business organisations want to sell a product or service to supply a social need, to implement plans and policies. To do these things, organisations spend enormous sums on time, energy and money communicating. They use face to face conversation, informal groups, in meetings, orally on the telephone, writing by desktop computer or terminals, in letters, memos, and in reports. All of these are Verbal Communication.

This form of communication does not use words. Pictures, computer graphics and company logos, are non-verbal communication. People spend 10% to 85% of their time at work, writing, reading, speaking, and listening. This should stress the importance of verbal and non-verbal communication.

Even tough electronic mail and other advances, have changed fundamentally business and business communication. People in organisations still put things in writing, rather than depend exclusively on oral communication. The reasons are:

1. To create a record
2. To convey complex data
3. To make things convenient for the reader
4. To save money
5. To convey their own messages more effectively

It must be stressed, that both the writing and communicating of messages, must be as polished and perfect as possible. If they are not, your organisation will pay a price in wasted time, wasted efforts, and lost good will.

Again from Webster’s Dictionary communications means “a system of facilities, used for communicating messages or orders; an organisation that develops, operates, and maintains services for communication, as in industry of the military. In the military – a system of routes or facilities for transporting persons or goods. The technology or industry of transmitting messages by means of a system of electrical or electronic facilities. The combined study, of effective communication in all forms, including speech and writing and graphic and dramatic arts.”

Business people care about correctness in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. If your grasp of the mechanics is fuzzy, if Standard English is not your native dialect, or if English is not your native language, you will need to spend some time memorising rules, with perhaps a good book or a tutor to help you. Always proof-read your document, before you send it out. Double check the reader’s name, and any numbers, and the first and last paragraphs. Do remember that perfect communication is an art, rooted in the principles of grammar, and writing stylish English.

1. Going to job interviews
2. Card games that I like.
3. Games of Russia
4. Regional cooking in Russia
5. Planning an International Food Fair at МГУ
6. The largest and smallest of birds
7. The dog
8. Riding horses
9. Working dogs
10. Volleyball
11. Tennis
12. Russian athletes
13. Russian soups
14. The Stolovaya
15. Piano music I like
16. My favourite Pop Group
17. Paris fashion
18. Moscow fashion
19. Mr. Yeltsin’s heart
20. The banana
21. A woman’s loving heart
22. A Moscow scandal
23. The Trans-Russian railway
24. 6 Positive things about Siberia
25. Making glassware

Parliamentary law is the system of rules that govern procedure and debate, in deliberative bodies. From the time of the Roman Senate, to the meetings of the Church in Europe, and subsequently to the British Parliament, and the Houses of Congress of the USA, certain principles and rules have evolved, which have governed the behaviour of legislatures. These rules have been adapted to cope with the behaviour of people at a wide variety of organisational meetings.

One rule is that personal ‘ad hominem’ remarks, are not allowed in meetings. The ideas originating from the members are more important, than the people who present them. Members are thus addressed, through the Chairman, and not directly. The Chairman is thus in charge of all discussion. Hence, we hear in Parliament in England: “The Right Honourable Gentleman, or the Right Honourable Lady; or ”the previous speaker, my colleague”, or “Mr. Evans” in other meetings. Going through the chair, brings a level of orderliness, to a meeting.

Perhaps the first rule to be observed, relates to the quorum. The quorum is the minimum number of members, legally required to conduct the business of the organisation and it’s constitution, or bylaws, will specify how many persons are required. Otherwise, a majority of all the members, constitutes a quorum.

For nearly all organisations, the Chairman is often the most important member of society. When presiding at a meeting, the chairman is responsible for it’s conduct, and it is for him, to see that the business is properly carried out, and that order is kept. His authority is comprehensive, so hi or she must know how to use that authority, to the best advantage.

A Point of Order, must deal with the conduct or procedure, of the meeting. A member cannot call a point of order, because he disagrees with the speaker, or Chairman, though this is often done, through ignorance of what constitutes a point of order, and the real objective is, that of being tiresome, both to the Speaker and Chairman.

The question of points of order, is one, which tests the knowledge of the Chairman. The meeting is not allowed to become disorderly. The point is, that points of order, are privileged motions, and must be heard immediately. If interruption is constant, then the Chairman can ask the interrupter to cease, and resume his seat. Failing that, the Chairman can suspend the meeting for say 15 minutes. If that fails, then the Chairman can close the meeting.

There are 4 bases upon which points of order can be called:

1. Incorrect procedure
2. Irrelevancy
3. Unparliamentary language.
4. Transgressing the rules of the society.

The rules for motions, appear to be more complex, than they really are. Before a motion is on the floor (before the assembly), and open for discussion, certain steps must be taken. There are differences between the USA and Britain as regards the minutiae of motions. The motion must be Introduced, Seconded, and Started. If there is no seconder, the motion falls through. When a change in the wording of the motion is desirable, it can be amended by adding words, by omitting words, or by substituting words.

When a motion seems undesirable an assembly may refuse to discuss it. A motion may be killed in 3 ways:

1. By objecting to it’s consideration
2. By postponing it indefinitely
3. By withdrawing it.

Certain motions, affect the meeting itself. These are the motions to take a recess, to fix the time to which to adjourn, and to adjourn.

The word parliamentary, is rich in positive associations. Thus unparliamentary word, with negative and pejorative associations. The charge of unparliamentary behaviour, is one of the most serious in a meeting, or in an organisation. Unparliamentary language, should not be tolerated, under any circumstances. Bad language, swearing, personal abuse, innuendo and implying something to a society, place or a person, are all included.

A motion of closure is moved for the purpose of stopping discussion. If cannot be proposed, when someone is actually speaking, or until the time limit for debate has expired. It must be seconded in the usual way, and put to the vote, at once, without being discussed.

There are several ways in which members put an end to discussion, each designated to meet a different requirement and result. The 5 most commonly encountered closures are:

1. Motion to the next business
2. Motion that the question be not put.
3. Motion to the Previous Question.
4. Motion for Referring Back
5. Motion for adjournment

1. Books
2. Russian sweets
3. Russian cakes
4. Mozart
5. Beethoven
6. The US Presidency
7. The Bolshoi Ballet
8. TV News
9. Red Square
10. How to improve TV
11. Valentines Day
12. What’s nice about snow
13. What is ecology
14. Heart transplants
15. TV Advertising
16. The car
17. Corruption
18. The uses of alcohol
19. England, 4 reasons why I want to visit and see it
20. Travelling by public transport
21. Tobacco
22. Farming
23. Guns
24. I want to be
25. Moscow radio stations

A motion is a formal proposal, put forward for consideration at any meeting. Not only must the members know about motions, and amendments, but also the Chairmen, who are in control of meetings. Chairmen have to decide, whether a motion is allowable, and often they have the power of veto, over certain types of motion.

A motion is the term applied to an item of business, or suggestion, put forward for consideration, at any meeting, is another definition, worthy of examination. It must always begin with the “That”, and express it’s meaning clearly, and concisely.

The wording should always be positive. It must declare an opinion, and preferably, call for some action e.g. “That smoking is detrimental to health, and the Government be urged to curtail its use”. Before being amended, a notion is terminated the “original” motion.

A motion does not become a resolution, until it has been put to the vote, and “resolved”. Hence motions and resolutions are not synonymous. A resolution can, however, be incorporated in a fresh motion, usually put before a higher authority. It is a matter for chairmen, that they understand, the difference, and that the matter be correctly handled.

These substitute, add, or delete words, anywhere in a motion, with the object of improving it. Their purpose is to incorporate in the motion, the suggestions, and opinions, arising out of discussion. Amendments must be brief, and not contrary to the meaning of the motion.

Amendments, can themselves be amended, but such amendments to amendments, must apply only to the amendment, and not to the motion itself. Technically, there is no limit to the number of amendments, but too many, make the motion unwieldy, and confusing, and it is often possible, to group, or gather 2 or 3 suggestions into one amendment, with the consent of the proposers. The amendments usually consume much time, but 4 or 5 amendments, should be adequate for each motion.

These are really the same, as both only add words, to a motion. For ordinary purposes, the word ‘amendment’ covers every change, but some people will purpose an “amendment” as this word, is more precise. A rider, is an addition to the end of a motion, usually in the form of a recommendation. It can be put forward, either before or after the motion is finally put to the vote.

When a motion is before the assembly, it can be debated, altered, delayed, disposed, and voted upon. All ordinary or main motions, that introduce proposals for consideration, are debatable. There are, however, certain motions, that concern the parliamentary procedure used, or which are intended to bring the discussion to an end. These motions are not debatable. One important fact is that only one principal motion can be before the assembly, at one time.

In addition, every motion must be carefully phrased, by the chairman, so that each member, understands its intent, and ramifications. If he is in the chair, the Chairman cannot speak either for or against, the motion. Any member, of the meeting, may speak for, or against, the motion. Discussion, should be confined, to the issue being considered. All irrelevant and unessential matters, should be eliminated. Hence the chairman, and all members must, therefore, know what the issue is. The Chairman must carefully follow, the order of the motions, and keep the members clearly informed, about what is before them.

Often a few people dominate a meeting, and they talk too much, and too often. In such a case, a more democratic debate, can be assured, by limiting discussion. The organisation may determine ahead of time, the length and numbers of times, each member can speak. The group might decide that no one can speak in debate (except by permission of the assembly) more than twice on the same question, on the same day, no longer then 10 minutes at a time. If any member who has not spoken, desires to speak, a member should retrain from speaking a second time, on a given question. Debate can also be brought to an end, by a motion. The wording of such a motion, is “Mr. Chairman, I move that we close the debate”. The motion to close the debate requires a two-thirds majority vote, in order to be carried.

When a member wishes to focus attention upon an error in procedure, a violation of a rule, or a digression from the question, he or she says: “Mr. Chairman, I rise on a Point of Order”. The reply of the Chairman should be “What, sir, is your point of order?”. The questioner then elaborates.

There are, however, at same meetings, what people call bogus points of order. The speaker rises, on a point of order, often not allowing the Chairman to respond. The Chairman must rule firmly, and say “Sir, this is your 15-th point of order, and I must ask you to resume your seat”. The objective of the people, making bogus points of order, is to disrupt, and destroy the meeting. This is where an experienced Chairman is invaluable. They must know in advance, what their responses to challenges like these are. The point is that the Points of Order, and Points of Information, are privileged motions, and have to be heard immediately. For people who are managers, and who have to handle large meetings, knowledge of the intricacies of motions is essential.

1. How to win at cards
2. Water sports
3. Training your dog
4. Deaf sign language
5. Protect the environment
6. Halt the spread of pornography
7. How Vodka is made
8. My brother’s/sister’s wedding
9. Hollywood
10. Arms control
11. Firework displays
12. Organ donations
13. UFO’s
14. Violence in films/TV shows
15. Zoos
16. Pyramid-makers
17. Horses
18. The USA
19. Whales
20. Mushrooms
21. My best relative
22. Perfumes; the famous names
23. Lightning
24. Cosmetic surgery
25. Sleep
26. TV Viewing

Communicating in English, is not the easiest or the most straight forward of matters in this world. Speakers and writers in English have certain rules for tackling and undertaking this task. We should note one fact. This is, that the principles of making a speech, and doing written communication, are exactly the same, in several ways. So, learning about writing, could enhance your skills, as far as speaking, is concerned.

For written communication, writing clear and simple English, is probably the greatest single accomplishment. If you are a manager or aspire to be one, you often have to write reports, to compile statements, present technical information, and write memos (memoranda). The writer must be aware of such matters, as the choice of words, the construction of sentences, the linking of sentences, into paragraphs, and the organisation of ideas, into a coherent whole. Spelling, punctuation, and handwriting should not be neglected, and in these days of Information Technology you should be aware of the different kinds of type, and layout, available on standard Word-Processors.

Like skilled, stylish performances in ballet, or in modern dance, good writing rests on a base of work. It is vital to look at the process of writing. Some authorities claim that Writing Process, contain 8 parts. These are:

1. Planning
2. Gathering facts
3. Writing
4. Evaluating
5. Getting feedback
6. Revising
7. Editing
8. Proof-reading

This order is not fixed, and there could be different arrangements of the activities. Also not every writing assignment, demands all 8 parts. Depending on the audience and the occasion you might have to devote, a large percentage of the time available, to planning, or gathering facts, and not so much on editing, or revising. Also if you aim to publish something, you will have to stress Proof-Reading and Editing, as against say getting Feedback or Evaluation. You might have certain strength, or weaknesses, as regards the writing process, and this could also alter the balance, or the allocation of time.

Many words have been written, about the writing of words. Some titles are ‘Writing Technical Reports’, ‘Plain Words’ and ‘More Plain Words’. Nearly all of them, talk about the ‘Fog-Index’-writing which is beclouded, and foggy, as a result of inept, inaccurate, and incompetent writing. One reason for this state of affairs, is that the person writing, feels that he or she must write to impress. They seek out and use, words that are too long, for the job of communication. Some rules for writing are:

1. Prefer the familiar word, to the far-fetched.
2. Prefer the concrete word to the abstract.
3. Prefer the single word, to the circumlocution.
4. Prefer the short word, to the long.
5. Prefer the Saxon word, to the Romance.

Probably every day, people use words, which are slang words, colloquialisms, and stock phrases. These, of course, cannot be used in academic writing, or in any kind of formal writing. They are usually inaccurate, inelegant, and suggest a lack of care, and thought, on the part of the writer. On the other hand, if you have to communicate ideas, in drama, or some other environment, where the formal code, is not in use, then idiom, and slang, might both be appropriate. One guiding principle, is, that the appropriate words or words should be used.

1. Realises that the first draft will not be perfect. Often proof-reading, getting feed-back, and evaluation, will show up errors, and oversights.
2. Will write regularly. This is to hone, and perfect, his or her writing skills.
3. Will modify the initial task, if it is too hard, or too easy. The communication must have the right level. Something too difficult could puzzle or alienate the readers. Something too easy, could be described as ridiculous.
4. Will have clear goals, focusing on Purposes and the audience. What are the aims and objectives, of the writer? Does he or she achieve them, with his or her written efforts?
5. Will have different strategies to choose from. Sometimes the opinions of supervisors, will inspire changes. At other times, the responses from readers, will indicate where changes will come from.
6. Will use rules flexibly. No attitude will guarantee failure, more than the attitude of inflexibility, and pigheadedness. Part of the art of communication is the willingness to accommodate, new and different ideas.
7. Will wait to edit, until after the Draft is complete. There is such a thing as too early editing. This could inhibit, both production, and swift writing. It is much better to view the communication as whole, and edit it, when the whole thing in finished.

1. The Bolshoi Theatre / Ballet
2. Red Square
3. Moscow’s centre
4. Macdonald's
5. Russian icons
6. Brazil
7. How to improve radio
8. The West
9. Petrograd
10. Churches in the Kremlin
11. Children good/bad
12. Inflation
13. Education
14. Science
15. What do we mean by Economics
16. Philosophies of Education
17. A history of Russian film
18. Feminism = Freedom or Retrogression
19. Taxes – what should we do about them
20. High prices – hard living
21. Happy songs

There are several types of public speaking organisations. Some will teach public speaking. Others will offer to you, the opportunity of practice in Debating, moving motions, and Chairmanship. Of course, the literature on Public speaking, will advise that you take practice in public speaking, at every available opportunity. Yes, but where? How are people to move to this desirable state? What should be their aims and objectives? When should people start public speaking activities? These are some of the questions that people have. They illustrate some of the difficulties, faced by aspiring speakers. Well, the answer is to form a public speaking association, or organisation. There are several ways of doing this.

Debating societies are primarily concerned with the staging of debates. The meeting hall should be big enough, to stage a debate with the debating society in the immediate area. The rules of the debating society, should be laid down in the Constitution, and the Chairman should always carry a copy of it. The Chairman and the members should always be clear, about the procedure to be followed. The rules should include, how many people comprise a quorum, the officers of the society, membership and subscription, and accounts, and disbursements. Special rules and regulations, might also apply to debates, and the style of the contest. So, in functioning as ordinary society, a debating society, can give to people, practice in public speaking. Usually, this practice is restricted to the Chairman, and other officers of the society. So how can the rank-and-file, the ordinary members, get public speaking practice? The usual remedy is for the society, to have a period of Impromptu Speaking, at the beginning of the meeting. The ordinary members, practice and speak for 3 minutes each, for 30 minutes to hour.

Debates of course, are the showpiece occasions. Usually, a challenge goes out from one society, to another one. The debating society can issue one, or receive one. The challenge is fashioned as a motion e.g. “That this House believes that capital punishment should be reintroduced”. Be sure to arrive at the venue to check that the chairs are arranged properly, and that the 2 teams face each other. Often Chairman and others, can be found sweeping the hall, and tidying up the room, 1Ѕ hours before the start of a big debate. This is not good planning.

In the West, there are 2 organisations known by this name. The British one is called Toastmasters. The one in Britain is really an association of private businessmen, who officiate at weddings, grand dinners, and other occasions, where ‘Toasts” (drinks) are made. The American Toastmaster’s Headquarter is “Toastmasters International P.O. Box 9052, Mission Viejo. California 92690-7052”

Toastmasters International specialises in the training of public speakers, Its programmes are excellent, as the speaker has to attempt certain set speeches. A pass or fail, is given by individual evaluators, and the final word, by the Educational Vice-President. The club has the usual officers – President or Chairman, Vice-President, Education Vice-President, Treasurer, Youth Officer etc. The work of the club is almost purely educational, and despite its name, it has very little to do with drinking toasts, or with preparing bread. Of special interest, in the Toastmaster’s Training program are its manuals. The first speech in the first manual is called the “Ice-Breaker”. Breaking the ice is an American idiom for the commencement of activities. There are other speeches like “The powerful persuader”. The speaker is given notes on the preparation of the speech, and a short bibliography on the topic usually follows, as well. Reactions to the Toastmasters programme are many. Some members will make only a few prepared speeches, and will function mainly in the running of the organisation. Others are in a hurry to finish the manual, and they do not follow the instructions and often failure results. Particularly with failure some people, adults, are unable to accept the verdict, and opinion, of the evaluators. Usually the evaluators are toastmasters, who have passed, in the performance of the speech. So the best rule is, to be gracious in accepting whatever decision is made. A similar organisation is Toastmistresses whose function, is similar to Toastmasters, but is exclusively for ladies. Some Toastmasters clubs, have women members. No matter how they are composed, do try to experience the Toastmasters or Toastmistresses clubs. Their training is tremendous!

1. Pizzas
2. Israel
3. The Russian NAVY
4. Advertising on TV. Yes or No
5. Auctions: How to do them.
6. Make it easy to yang people to travel
7. What is German Cuisine
8. Japan – still a world power
9. Fruit and vegetable juice
10. Fried chicken
11. The cucumber
12. The hamburger
13. Superstition in the world over
14. Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones
15. Fishes from Russian seas and lakes.
16. Paris
17. Petrograd
18. New York
19. Ukraine
20. Kiev
21. Russian salads
22. The music of Tchaikovsky
23. Russia’s rivers
24. Our ecological failures
25. An aquarium for fish pets
26. Fat men make the best husbands.